PHHE 435\/535 Ethical Decision Making for Health Professionals<\/span><\/h2>\n

Sample Answer for PHHE 435\/535 Ethical Decision Making for Health Professionals Included After Question<\/strong><\/h2>\n

PHHE 435 535 Ethical Decision Making for Health Professionals<\/strong><\/p>\n

Description<\/h2>\n

\n

In this week’s readings and lecture, there is mention of certain ‘behaviors’ that are only morally acceptable if justified by adequate reasons. Discuss what is meant by this. As in previous Discussion Board topics, you are asked to incorporate an ‘Ethics of the Good’ when responding to this topic. Provide an example of a behavior that is only morally acceptable if justified by adequate reasons. Describe in detail what those adequate reasons might be.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

A Sample Answer For the Assignment: PHHE 435\/535 Ethical Decision Making for Health Professionals<\/strong><\/h2>\n

Title: PHHE 435\/535 Ethical Decision Making for Health Professionals<\/strong><\/h2>\n

PHHE 435\/535 Ethical Decision Making for Health Professionals Module 10A Reproductive Issues Master of Public Health Program<\/a> – Copyright \u00a9 2017. Board of Trustees of Northern Illinois University. All Rights Reserved. Objectives \u2022 Describe the techniques and technologies affecting reproduction \u2022 List medical interventions to prevent\/promote pregnancy Photo Credit: Bobby \u2022 Identify the ethical issues prevalent in this area Reproductive Techniques & Technologies \u2022 Examine techniques and technologies affecting reproduction: 1 Reproductive Techniques & Technologies<\/a> \u2022 Examine techniques and technologies affecting reproduction: \u2013 Contraception\/sterilization Reproductive Techniques & Technologies \u2022 Examine techniques and technologies affecting reproduction: Photo Credit: Sarah Mirk \u2013 Contraception\/sterilization \u2013 Facilitate pregnancy Life \u2022 When does life begin? 2 Life \u2022 When does a woman become pregnant? \u2022 Fertilization? Photo Credit: AndreaLaurel \u2022 When fertilized ovum implants? Pregnancy Occurs\u2026 \u2022 \u2026when the female body grasps the fertilized ovum Pregnancy Occurs\u2026 \u2022 \u2026becomes \u2018one of us\u2019 some time after fertilization and implantation 3 Pregnancy Occurs\u2026 \u2022 Destroying an embryo before implantation \u2260 abortion \u2022 Why is that? \u2022 Because pregnancy has not occurred \u2022 Still morally significant action Contraception & Sterilization \u2022 Three reasons to engage in moral reflection: Contraception & Sterilization 1. Up until recently, Christianity condemned contraceptive practice Immoral 4 Contraception & Sterilization \u2022 Nothing about contraceptive practices in the Bible Photo Credit: changeable focus Contraception & Sterilization Photo Credit: gt8073a 2. Thought of as a criminal act (many state laws against use and distribution) Contraception & Sterilization 3. Pose some risk (risk damage to life) Photo Credit: Tommaso Meli 5 Contraception & Sterilization Contraception & Sterilization \u2022 Only ethical if there is adequate\/proportionate moral reasons to balance the risks 6 History of Contraception Contraception & Sterilization \u2022 Population pressures valued having more children to increase likelihood of survival \u2022 Contraception seen as immoral, undermined social good Romans Photo Credit: Wayne Noffsinger \u2022 Had laws against taking substance that would prevent conception\/cause miscarriage 7 Early Hebrews \u2022 Contraception not explicitly condemned Photo Credit: Lawrie Cate Early Hebrews \u2022 Many times, biblical stories interpreted in a way to support a position\/agenda \u2013 Story of Onan, son of Judah Photo Credit: Lawrie Cate Early Christians \u2022 Not mentioned in the Christian scriptures as either condemning or condoning Photo Credit: Live Action Hero 8 Stoicism (350 B.C.E. \u2013 300 C.E.) Stoicism (350 B.C.E. \u2013 300 C.E.) \u2022 Powerful moral philosophy in Greek and Roman traditions Stoicism (350 B.C.E. \u2013 300 C.E.) Fundamental tenets that advocated a negative moral judgment about contraception 1. Emphasized nature as the norm of morality (living morally) 9 Stoicism (350 B.C.E. \u2013 300 C.E.) Fundamental tenets that advocated a negative moral judgment about contraception 1. Emphasized nature as the norm of morality (living morally) 2. Nature was imbued with reason (LOGOS) so behavior should not be motivated by emotion\/passion Stoicism (350 B.C.E. \u2013 300 C.E.) \u2022 Sex moral when undertaken: Stoicism (350 B.C.E. \u2013 300 C.E.) \u2022 Sex moral when undertaken: \u2013 According to natural design 10 Stoicism (350 B.C.E. \u2013 300 C.E.) \u2022 Sex moral when undertaken: \u2013 According to natural design \u2013 In accord with reason, not passion (reproduction) Stoicism (350 B.C.E. \u2013 300 C.E.) \u2022 Powerful influence on Christianity Stoicism (350 B.C.E. \u2013 300 C.E.) \u2022 Powerful influence on Christianity \u2022 St. Jerome (340-420) Photo Credit: POP \u2022 Christian theologian 11 Stoicism (350 B.C.E. \u2013 300 C.E.) \u2022 Powerful influence on Christianity \u2022 Augustine (354-431) \u2022 Christian theologian Augustine \u2022 Condemned contraception, sex for reproduction only Augustine \u2013 The Good of Marriage \u2022 Sex without pregnancy as goal is morally defective \u2022 Unmarried woman having intercourse in order to have a child sins less than a married woman having intercourse with the hope of avoiding pregnancy 12 Augustine \u2022 Saw women\u2019s role only as in reproduction \/ justifies her existence \u2022 Without pregnancy, species will die out Stoic-Christian Position Against Contraception \u2022 Influence until 16th century \u2022 Challenged \u2022 Still, came out with official catechism equating contraception with homicide \u2022 Stiff penalties 20th Century \u2022 Positions of some Christian churches were altered \u2022 1930 \u2013 Anglicans noted that artificial birth control is ethical if practiced for morally sound reasons and not motivated by selfishness 13 20th Century \u2022 1959 \u2013 World Council of Churches \u2013 once a responsible decision was made not to have a child, any appropriate method could be used Catholic Church Natural Family Planning \u2022 1930 \u2013 Position of Roman Catholic Church somewhat altered \u2022 For a good reason, could deliberately choose to have sexual intercourse only during the infertile periods for purpose of preventing pregnancy Catholic Church \u2022 Still, traditional prohibitions against artificial birth control in effect \u2022 1968 \u2013 Despite recommendations from papal commission findings, maintained position about immorality of artificial contraception 14 Invoking Natural Law Photo Credit: Bureau of Land Management \u2022 Natural Law forbids contraception, Pope was saying immoral for ALL human beings Invoking Natural Law Photo Credit: Bureau of Land Management \u2022 Implied that need Church authorities to interpret Natural Law, at odds with original intent, i.e., knowable by Natural Reason Invoking Natural Law \u2022 In some cases, (contraception), has to be interpreted by the Pope Photo Credit: Steven Polunsky 15 Invoking Natural Law Photo Credit: Bureau of Land Management \u2022 Interpretation binding for ALL humans Invoking Natural Law Photo Credit: Bureau of Land Management \u2022 Interfering with normal reproductive process is not a morally neutral activity Underlies Position \u2022 Attempt to dignify human sexuality \u2013 linked with having a family \u2022 Bad features associated with contraception \u2013 unwanted side effects, cause health problems 16 Morality Photo Credit: Kathy Kimpel \u2022 Avoid disorders in human behavior unless Morality Photo Credit: Kathy Kimpel \u2022 Avoid disorders in human behavior unless we have an appropriate reason to justify them 17 Morality \u2022 Avoid disorders in human behavior unless we have an appropriate reason to justify them \u2022 Think about the impact of contraception on our lives Morality \u2022 Will action truly contribute to individual and social human goods? \u2022 Will it undermine them? \u2022 Moral or immoral Law Photo Credit: Chad Kainz \u2022 Up until recently, many state laws prohibit use and distribution of contraceptive devices 18 Law Photo Credit: Phil Roeder \u2022 1961 \u2013 U.S. Supreme Court heard Poe v Ullman pharmacist challenged Connecticut state law Law \u2022 Although case was dismissed, two judges dissented, on grounds it was an invasion of privacy Photo Credit: Phil Roeder \u2022 1965 \u2013 Griswold v. Connecticut \u2013 U.S. Supreme Court struck down the state law \u2013 on basis of invasion of privacy Law \u2022 Although still felt using contraceptives was wrong, invading bedroom to enforce the law is a greater wrong Photo Credit: Phil Roeder \u2022 Violate couple\u2019s right to privacy during sexual intercourse 19 Law \u2022 1972 \u2013 U.S. Supreme Court struck down Massachusetts law prohibiting distribution, use of contraceptives by unmarried couples Photo Credit: Phil Roeder \u2022 1977 \u2013 states cannot restrict distribution of contraceptives to minors Law \u2022 Did not address issue of whether use of contraceptives was moral or immoral. Indeed\u2026 Photo Credit: Phil Roeder \u2022 Invalidated laws because they violated people\u2019s privacy Continue Photo Credit: Tracy Sorensen 20 PHHE 435\/535 Ethical Decision Making for Health Professionals Module 10B Reproductive Issues Master of Public Health Program – Copyright \u00a9 2017. Board of Trustees of Northern Illinois University. All Rights Reserved. Contraception and Ethics \u2022 Raise set of ethical concerns because they are intended to cause dysfunction \u2022 Only morally acceptable if justified by adequate reasons Contraception and Ethics \u2022 Moral differences exist between IUD and barrier method \u2013 Prevent implantation vs. prevent fertilization 1 Contraception and Ethics \u2022 Moral differences exist between sterilization and reversible method Contraception and Ethics \u2022 Key question is when do they contribute to the human good of the couple and of society, despite the disorder they introduce to reproductive physiology \u2013 Despite the risks\/side effects Contraception and Ethics \u2022 Deliberating morality of various contraceptive interventions \u2022 Realization that role of sexuality in human love grows in importance \u2022 Less emphasis on traditional idea that every sexual act is morally acceptable only if it is open to pregnancy (love not as important, more the parent role) 2 Contraception and Ethics \u2022 Population control Contraception and Ethics \u2022 Population control \u2013 is natural family planning as efficacious as artificial methods of birth control Contraception and Ethics \u2022 Question is Photo Credit: Stefan Baudy 3 Contraception and Ethics \u2022 Question is between those that say contraception is always a moral evil and those who say it is always bad, but not a moral evil whenever there are sufficient reasons for introducing it into the interpersonal relationship Photo Credit: Stefan Baudy Contraception and Ethics \u2022 Contraception can be a moral evil (unethical) if it is used to enable one to be promiscuous and engage in sexual intercourse for the sake of lust and not caring Contraception and Ethics \u2022 Moral deliberation needs to consider how an unexpected pregnancy can compromise the economic freedom, opportunity to expand role of women beyond that of mother\/wife 4 Other Issues \u2022 Dispensing contraceptives at public high schools \u2013 Condoms \u2013 Birth control pill \u2013 Implant Norplant capsules Photo Credit: Surija \/\u201dSray\u201d Other Issues \u2022 Court imposed forced sterilization for criminals (violent sex offenders) \u2022 Sterilization for welfare participants \u2022 Sterilization for mentally challenged women (can\u2019t avoid) Photo Credit: ResolueSupportMedia Other Issues \u2022 Determined by whether or not the intervention is justified by moral reasons showing that alternatives… will do even more harm to the good life 5 Medically Assisted Pregnancy Treatment for infertility 1960\u2019s popular Artificial Insemination (AI) \u2022 Eventually used by \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 Heterosexual without a partner Lesbian woman with no desire for male partner Not treated for infertility Some clinics declined to provide under these circumstances Photo Credit: Katelyn Swelgart 6 Artificial Insemination \u2022 Man providing sperm is the \u2018donor\u2019 \u2022 Could be from husband \u2022 Could be business transaction at sperm bank \u2013 Remains anonymous Photo Credit: Katelyn Swelgart Artificial Insemination: > 30,000 pregnancies\/year \u2022 Sperm banks supply AI clinics \u2022 Advertise in numerous publications \u2013 $35.00 per sample Photo Credit: Katelyn Swelgart Artificial Insemination \u2022 Originally, moral\/ethical issues not considered \u2022 Now, the source of serious harm must be considered Photo Credit: Katelyn Swelgart 7 Artificial Insemination \u2022 The offspring might become distressed if\/when they discover their origin of 1\/2 genetic complement \u2013 Business transaction \u2013 Could marry a half-sibling, even sperm donor himself Photo Credit: Katelyn Swelgart Difference between Adoption & AI Adoption \u2022 Attempt to help a child born into a less than ideal situation AI \u2022 Deliberate attempt to produce a child with an unknown and disinterested genetic father Artificial Insemination \u2013 Other Challenges \u2022 Single mother \u2013 long term effects on the offspring \u2022 Stigma of not having a \u2018traditional family support\u2019 \u2022 Stigma from sexual orientation of mother Photo Credit: Katelyn Swelgart 8 Artificial Insemination \u2013 Other Challenges Artificial Insemination \u2022 Catholic Church prohibition against masturbation as a serious moral wrong, despite the intention \u2022 Not all Catholic theologians agree Photo Credit: Katelyn Swelgart 9 1978 In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) \u2022 Ovulation induction \u2022 Egg retrieval \u2022 Fertilization \u2022 Embryo transfer Photo Credit: Solis Invicti In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) \u2013 Ethical Concerns \u2022 Object to masturbation to obtain sperm \u2022 Beginning of human life outside body as degrading human dignity (right to be conceived naturally) Photo Credit: Solis Invicti 10 In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) \u2013 Ethical Concerns \u2022 Object to using fertility treatments for unmarried women \u2013 Not think appropriate because not using for infertility problem \u2013 Violation of traditional family structure \u2013 confusion over parenthood Photo Credit: Solis Invicti In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) \u2013 Ethical Concerns \u2022 Discarding unused developing embryos (destruction of human life) \u2022 Question of what to do with frozen embryos \u2013 (1983) Mario & Elsa Rios – inheritance Photo Credit: Solis Invicti In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) \u2013 Ethical Concerns \u2022 Question of what to do with frozen embryos \u2013 (1989) – Mary Sue Davis and Junior Davis (IVF) \u2022 Marriage broke up \u2022 Who owns embryos \u2022 No longer exist? Photo Credit: Solis Invicti 11 In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) \u2013 Ethical Concerns \u2022 American Fertility Society \u2013 embryos first 14 days of development may be: \u2013 Frozen for future use \u2013 Discard if unneeded \u2013 Used for research with permission Photo Credit: Solis Invicti In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) \u2013 Ethical Concerns \u2022 Not all ethicists agree Respect human embryo \u2013 Feel only should fertilize the number of eggs to be immediately implanted \u2013 Although inconvenient, acknowledges the value of the human embryo In Vitro Fertilization \u2013 Moral Status \u2013 Extremes An unborn baby Human tissue 12 In Vitro Fertilization \u2022 Prudential position finds IVF reasonable for married couples of child-bearing age when all else has failed \u2022 The number of fertilized ova restricted to the number immediately returned to woman Photo Credit: Solis Invicti In Vitro Fertilization \u2022 Couples carriers of serious genetic disease, need to select only unaffected embryos for transfer \u2022 Might be able to justify use of frozen embryos after menopause Photo Credit: Solis Invicti In Vitro Fertilization \u2022 Since an ethics of prudence requires us to consider all relevant circumstances\/consequences of action and we do not know it all in this area, all moral judgments are tentative \u2022 Need to be conservative Photo Credit: Solis Invicti 13 Other Interventions \u2022 Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT) Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer GIFT is a procedure in which eggs and sperm are placed in the fallopian tube via laparoscopy. Fertilization may then take place in the fallopian tube. Other Interventions \u2022 Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer (ZIFT) \u2022 Ovum Transfer \u2022 Surrogate Motherhood 14 Surrogate Motherhood \u2022 By husband\u2019s sperm Surrogate Motherhood \u2022 By husband\u2019s sperm \u2013 Could be wife\u2019s egg Surrogate Motherhood \u2022 By husband\u2019s sperm \u2013 Could be wife\u2019s egg \u2013 Married couple would be the genetic parents, surrogate the gestational mother 15 Surrogate Motherhood \u2022 By husband\u2019s sperm \u2013 Could be wife\u2019s egg \u2013 Married couple would be the genetic parents, surrogate the gestational mother \u2013 Biblical precedent \u2013 Sarah and Abraham (Hagar, Ismael) Surrogate Motherhood \u2022 By husband\u2019s sperm \u2013 Could be wife\u2019s egg \u2013 Married couple would be the genetic parents, surrogate the gestational mother \u2013 Biblical precedent \u2013 Sarah and Abraham (Hagar, Ismael) \u2013 Not really surrogate, the real mother Who is the Mother? \u2022 Genetic mother \u2013 eggs \u2022 Gestational mother \u2013 conceives, carries, labors, delivers, nurses \u2022 Social mother who raises the offspring 16 Who is the Mother? \u2022 Use of the term \u2018surrogate\u2019 has many complexities \u2022 If not considered the real mother, demeans the one who was pregnant and gave birth \u2022 May be difficult to understand gestational mothers\u2019 change of heart Photo Credit: Paul J Everett Commercial Surrogacy \u2022 Works through agency \u2022 Contract services \u2022 AI \u2022 Medical bills paid \u2022 Final fee paid upon delivery of goods Family Surrogacy \u2022 Not a business transaction \u2022 Involves personal relationships \u2022 Family member is gestational mother \u2022 Egg from wife, sperm from husband 17 Family Surrogacy \u2022 Can get very confusing \u2013 Gestational mother of her grandchildren \u2013 Grandmother of her own children \u2013 Great-grandmother of her grandchildren Family Surrogacy \u2022 Although not as many ethical issues as with commercial surrogacy, also other issues Family Surrogacy \u2022 If family surrogacy places the women who do it in a position of exploitation, then the human good is undermined \u2022 Choice may actually be coerced 18 Ethicists \u2022 Problems with commercial surrogacy \u2022 Weak moral arguments \u2013 Reproductive freedom, right of people to have children \u2013 Describe how noble it is for one woman to help another The Case of Baby \u2018M\u2019 \u2022 1984 Elizabeth Stern \u2022 Wife well educated, employed \u2022 No indication of infertility \u2022 Met Mary Beth Whitehead \u2013 Made a contract \u2013 Financially compromised 19 Conclusion 20<\/p>\n