PSY 5107 Week 5 - Assignment Critique Descriptive Observational Methods of Research

PSY 5107 Week 5 – Assignment: Critique Descriptive/Observational Methods of Research

A Sample Answer For the Assignment: PSY 5107 Week 5 – Assignment: Critique Descriptive/Observational Methods of Research

Title: PSY 5107 Week 5 – Assignment: Critique Descriptive/Observational Methods of Research

PSY 5107 Week 5 – Assignment Critique Descriptive Observational Methods of Research

Descriptive/Observational Methods of Research

Scientific research can adopt two study designs; qualitative and quantitative research designs. Research can adopt a descriptive, observational, or interventional/experimental approach depending on the purpose and choice of the researcher. Observational research studies generally entail the study of the subject or population of interest in their natural state and circumstances without the implementation of any interventions or changes (Gilmartin-Thomas et al., 2018). These studies allow researchers to observe, study and describe the distribution and attributes of the study variables, without the need to establish any causal relationships or other hypotheses (Aggarwal et al., 2022). These types of approaches can effectively be adopted in healthcare-related studies such as determining the predisposing risk factors, outcomes of interventions, and incidence and prevalence of certain conditions of interest.

Observational studies are divided into descriptive and analytical studies. Descriptive observational studies describe the unique attributes of the studied variables or population whereas analytical observational studies identify determinants of health-related events by trying to address cause-and-effect dilemmas with no control over the variables in a cost-effective manner (Gilmartin-Thomas et al., 2018). Examples of observational studies include case reports, case series, ecological studies, cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and cohort studies (Gilmartin-Thomas et al., 2018). Case-control studies, cross-sectional studies, and cohort studies are comparative studies that involve control groups with no exposure of interest and thus can establish associations and relationships between the study variables.

The purpose of this paper is to describe and detail an observational/descriptive research method that I can use to explore a topic of interest. This will include the reasons for the choice from the existing methods, the strengths and weaknesses of the chosen research method, how to deal with the weaknesses, and whether the chosen research method is aligned with a quantitative or qualitative research design. An alternative observational research approach will also be discussed regarding similar aspects. A comparison of the similarities and differences between the two chosen research approaches will also be presented.

Cross-Sectional Studies

Cross-sectional studies are a type of descriptive observational study. Cross-sectional studies collect and analyze data at a given point in time with no longitudinal follow-up of study participants to give a snapshot of the health status of the population of interest (Wang et al., 2020). Information is collected to determine the presence, distribution, and level of the desired health-related attribute with the exposure and outcomes being assessed simultaneously (Aggarwal et al., 2022). The findings from the analysis of data obtained from cross-sectional studies can be used to determine the prevalence of the study variables such as diseases, predisposing factors, traits, or health behaviors in a particular population.

This is particularly important in evaluating the disease burden and healthcare needs of the population (Aggarwal et al., 2022). These studies can also give valuable information on the determinants of the health of a population. An association or relationship between exposure and outcomes can be established but a causal inference can not be made. This is achieved by comparing the prevalence of a particular health outcome between individuals with exposure and those without exposure. The reason why I chose this observational research approach is that it is simple and not expensive to conduct. It is also time-saving since there is no follow-up of the study participants hence will be convenient for me. Since there is no manipulation of variables, obtaining ethical approval will be easier since the study population is not at risk of any harmful or risky interventions.

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Cross-Sectional Studies

Cross-sectional studies have their strengths and weaknesses. The advantages of these research approaches are that they are easy to

PSY 5107 Week 5 - Assignment Critique Descriptive Observational Methods of Research — PSY 5107 Week 5 – Assignment Critique Descriptive Observational Methods of Research

perform, relatively cheap, and require no longitudinal follow-up of study subjects thus a short data collection period. These studies can also establish the prevalence of health-related attributes and associations between exposures and disease outcomes (Aggarwal et al., 2022). Multiple exposures and associated outcomes can be studied at the same time. They can thus be used for risk stratification of individuals in the population to allow for the implementation of targeted policies and strategies for better health outcomes.

The identified weaknesses include the risk of selection and measurement biases thus the findings may not be inferred as the true representation of the general population (Aggarwal et al., 2022). The exact temporal sequence and relationship between the exposure and associated health outcome cannot be determined to show which preceded the other due to the absence of longitudinal follow-up. The associations between exposures and disease outcomes cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships thus additional studies may be needed to make a causal inference. These studies also determine the prevalence of health attributes and thus cannot give the incidence in cases of outbreaks.

Strategies to Address the Weaknesses of Cross-sectional Studies

Certain strategies can be adopted to address the weaknesses and limitations of cross-sectional studies. These include conducting multiple repeated temporal cross-sectional studies on a specific concept to improve the quality of causal relationships (Taris et al., 2021). Time-separated cross-sectional studies on a similar subject of interest also reduce the potential risk of selection and measurement biases. This longitudinal approach may also provide new insights and information such as the incidence of a particular health attribute. A sample that is representative of the population should also be selected. Relatively larger sample size should be considered to increase the precision of the prevalence estimates. There should also be clarity on the inclusion and exclusion criteria of the exposed and control study groups.

Cross-sectional Research Approach Alignment

Cross-sectional studies are more aligned with quantitative research design. This is because numerical data is collected and analyzed and involves the calculation of the prevalence ratio. Quantitative-based cross-sectional studies use quantitative statistical data to establish the prevalence of specific health conditions, attitudes, and knowledge of the population of interest (Kesmodel, 2018). The measurements from the findings can be used in the comparison of the exposed group and the control group.

Case Series

Case series is the other alternative observational descriptive approach to research studies. A case series entails a description of the clinical or epidemiological characteristics and outcomes among an aggregate of individuals with either a given disease or an exposure over a given time (Torres-Duque et al., 2020). The data collection can take a prospective or retrospective approach. This kind of study has no control or comparison group since the aim of the study is a description of the population and outcomes of interest and not the comparison of risks (Torres-Duque et al., 2020). Valid statistical associations between exposure and outcomes cannot be established. Cause-and-effect relationships cannot also be determined and thus require further exploration through other research methods such as randomized control trials. There is also no randomization during the selection of study participants. These attributes make the evidence and findings from the case series to be of limited value.

These studies are, however, essential in exploring unusual, new, or rare diseases, description of new emerging adverse outcomes related to interventions, and opening a new line of investigations from new hypotheses generated from chance observations which lead to advancements in the clinical field (Aggarwal et al., 2022). They can also explore the safety of new therapeutic interventions. The reasons I would consider this approach is its inexpensive nature, simplicity, and ready availability of the required data.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Series

Case series have various advantages. These studies are easy to conduct, inexpensive, quick, require little effort, have readily available data, have no serious ethical scrutiny except for matters of confidentiality, and similar studies among different populations at different times can identify geographic variations and temporal variations in disease prevalence (Aggarwal et al., 2022). They are also of educational value, describe outcomes of novel interventions, generate new hypotheses which can further be pursued using other research methods, identify new unusual conditions, and offer opportunities for refinement of new interventions and protocols (Rezigalla et al., 2020). Resource planning and allocation can be implemented based on information obtained such as the disease burden.

Case series also have weaknesses and pitfalls. These limitations include selection bias, lack of control over the study variables, lack of comparison of cases, and lack of generalizability of the findings (Rezigalla et al., 2020). The limitations in the number of cases in case series which may just be a chance occurrence and biases created by the availability and accuracy of the records are the other pitfalls of case series (Aggarwal et al., 2022). Conclusions based on findings can thus not be inferred from the general population putting into question their validity and reliability. Associations and relationships between variables cannot be determined due to the absence of control groups. Cause-and-effect relationships as well as causal inference can not be made.

Measures to Address the Weaknesses of Case Series

The limitations of the case series can be addressed by certain measures. These include predefining the inclusion and exclusion criteria before beginning the study and clear specifications of the duration of the study (Aggarwal et al., 2022). Sampling strategies can also be employed based on the disease or outcome of interest with the data collected systematically and analyzed using robust methods (Torres-Duque et al., 2020). These measures will greatly enhance the validity, relevance, quality, and strength of evidence from the case series. A larger number of cases can also be included in the study to further strengthen the obtained evidence.

Research Alignment of Case Series

Case series are a type of quantitative research study. They fall under descriptive observational studies. These studies use quantitative statistical data to determine the exposure and outcomes in an aggregate of individuals over a given time without the use of a control group. Numerical data is used during data collection and analysis. There is also the use of qualitative data during the description of attributes of the population or variable of interest. There are no particular measures in the case series.

Similarities and Differences Between Cross-Sectional Studies and Case Series

Various similarities and differences exist between cross-sectional studies and case series. This is determined by factors such as the directionality of the study, the primary use, the duration of the study, and the presence of comparison among others (Ranganathan et al., 2019). The similarities include the quick, simple and inexpensive nature, the lack of control of the variables, the descriptive observational research design adopted, the minimal ethical scrutiny, the establishment of associations between variables without determination of cause-and-effect relationships, lack of generalizability of the findings from lack of randomization and presence of selection bias, and low strength of research evidence. The differences include the primary use of the research, the research directionality, the measures obtained, and the use of a control group.

Table 1: A comparison between case studies and cross-sectional studies

Feature	Cross-sectional studies	Case Series
Study Design	Quantitative	Quantitative
Study type	Descriptive observational	Descriptive observational
Cost	Inexpensive	Inexpensive
Ethical scrutiny	Minimal	Minimal
Measures	Prevalence ratio	None
Control or comparison group	Present	Absent
Directionality	Exposure and outcomes are assessed simultaneously at a given point in time.	Exposure and outcomes are assessed prospectively or retrospectively.
Primary Use	They can determine the prevalence of a condition. Associations between exposure and outcomes can be established without causal relationships.	They can identify outbreaks or the emergence of new unusual conditions. No valid statistical associations between variables can be established.
Strength of evidence	Low	Very low

Conclusion

Observational descriptive research approaches offer the description of the study variables without manipulations of the outcomes of interest. Cross-sectional studies and case series are examples of these types of research approaches. These two types of studies are relatively cheap, quick, and easy to conduct compared to experimental studies. They can establish associations between study variables but the cause-and-effect relationships cannot be determined. Both of these study types have individual strengths and weaknesses. They also share some similarities and differences. Strategies can be put in place to address their shortcomings so that better quality and strength of findings can be obtained. The primary use, strengths, and weaknesses are some of the considerations when choosing the type of research approach to adopt.

PSY 5107 Week 5 – Assignment: Critique Descriptive/Observational Methods of Research References

Aggarwal, R., & Ranganathan, P. (2019). Study designs: Part 2 – descriptive studies. Perspectives in Clinical Research, 10(1), 34. https://doi.org/10.4103/picr.picr_154_18

Gilmartin-Thomas, J. F. M., Liew, D., & Hopper, I. (2018). Observational studies and their utility for practice. Australian Prescriber, 41(3), 82–85. https://doi.org/10.18773/austprescr.2018.017

Kesmodel, U. S. (2018). Cross-sectional studies – what are they good for? Acta Obstetricia Et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 97(4), 388–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/aogs.13331

Ranganathan, P. (2019). Understanding Research Study Designs. Indian Journal of Critical Care Medicine, 23(S4). https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10071-23314

Rezigalla, A. A. (2020). Observational study designs: Synopsis for selecting an appropriate study design. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.6692

Taris, T. W., Kessler, S. R., & Kelloway, E. K. (2021). Strategies addressing the limitations of cross-sectional designs in occupational health psychology: What they are good for (and what not). Work &Amp; Stress, 35(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2021.1888561

Torres-Duque, C. A., Maria Patino, C., & Carvalho Ferreira, J. (2020). Case series: An Essential Study Design to build knowledge and pose hypotheses for rare and new diseases. Jornal Brasileiro De Pneumologia, 46(4). https://doi.org/10.36416/1806-3756/e20200389

Wang, X., & Cheng, Z. (2020). Cross-Sectional Studies: Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations. Chest, 158(1S), S65–S71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2020.03.012

Sample Answer for PSY 5107 Week 5 – Assignment: Critique Descriptive/Observational Methods of Research Included

You have been asked to help budding researchers understand the difference between quasi-experiments and true experiments. Prepare a tip sheet that could be shared with others that may also serve as a helpful tool for you as you continue your studies. You may include graphics, tables, or other visuals to support your work.

To begin, provide an example of a quasi-experimental research design where you are studying differences among individuals within pre-existing groups or conditions that occur naturally within the real world. Briefly describe the study, and then include the following in your tip sheet:

Explain the issue of random assignment, and detail why it would be necessary to conduct a quasi-experimental study and not a true experiment in this hypothetical study.
Interpret how this group membership could be impactful in understanding the results.
Conclude with a brief exploration of what you would need to do to convert this into a true experiment, theoretically speaking.

Length: 2-3 page tip sheet, not including title and reference pages

The completed assignment should address all of the assignment requirements, exhibit evidence of concept knowledge, and demonstrate thoughtful consideration of the content presented in the course. The writing should integrate scholarly resources, reflect academic expectations and current APA standards, and adhere to Northcentral University’s Academic Integrity Policy.

As we begin this session, I would like to take this opportunity to clarify my expectations for this course:

Please note that GCU Online weeks run from Thursday (Day 1) through Wednesday (Day 7).

Course Room Etiquette:

It is my expectation that all learners will respect the thoughts and ideas presented in the discussions.
All postings should be presented in a respectful, professional manner. Remember – different points of view add richness and depth to the course!

Office Hours:

My office hours vary so feel free to shoot me an email at Kelly.[email protected] or my office phone is 602.639.6517 and I will get back to you within one business day or as soon as possible.
Phone appointments can be scheduled as well. Send me an email and the best time to call you, along with your phone number to make an appointment.
I welcome all inquiries and questions as we spend this term together. My preference is that everyone utilizes the Questions to Instructor forum. In the event your question is of a personal nature, please feel free to post in the Individual Questions for Instructor forum I will respond to all posts or emails within 24 or sooner.

Late Policy and Grading Policy

Discussion questions:

I do not mark off for late DQ’s.
I would rather you take the time to read the materials and respond to the DQ’s in a scholarly way, demonstrating your understanding of the materials.
I will not accept any DQ submissions after day 7, 11:59 PM (AZ Time) of the week.
Individual written assignments – due by 11:59 PM AZ Time Zone on the due dates indicated for each class deliverable.

Assignments:

Assignments turned in after their specified due dates are subject to a late penalty of -10%, each day late, of the available credit. Please refer to the student academic handbook and GCU policy.
Any activity or assignment submitted after the due date will be subject to GCU’s late policy
Extenuating circumstances may justify exceptions, which are at my sole discretion. If an extenuating circumstance should arise, please contact me privately as soon as possible.
No assignments can be accepted for grading after midnight on the final day of class.
All assignments will be graded in accordance with the Assignment Grading Rubrics

Participation

Participation in each week’s Discussion Board forum accounts for a large percentage of your final grade in this course.
Please review the Course Syllabus for a comprehensive overview of course deliverables and the value associated with each.
It is my expectation that each of you will substantially contribute to the course discussion forums and respond to the posts of at least three other learners.
A substantive post should be at least 200 words. Responses such as “great posts” or “I agree” do not meet the active engagement expectation.
Please feel free to draw on personal examples as you develop your responses to the Discussion Questions but you do need to demonstrate your understanding of the materials.
I do expect outside sources as well as class materials to formulate your post.
APA format is not necessary for DQ responses, but I do expect a proper citation for references.
Please use peer-related journals found through the GCU library and/or class materials to formulate your answers. Do not try to “Google” DQ’s as I am looking for class materials and examples from the weekly materials.
I will not accept responses that are from Wikipedia, Business dictionary.com, or other popular business websites. You will not receive credit for generic web searches – this does not demonstrate graduate-level research.
Stay away from the use of personal pronouns when writing. As a graduate student, you are expected to write based on research and gathering of facts. Demonstrating your understanding of the materials is what you will be graded on. You will be marked down for lack of evidence to support your ideas.

Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the act of claiming credit for another’s work, accomplishments, or ideas without appropriate acknowledgment of the source of the information by including in-text citations and references.
This course requires the utilization of APA format for all course deliverables as noted in the course syllabus.
Whether this happens deliberately or inadvertently, whenever plagiarism has occurred, you have committed a Code of Conduct violation.
Please review your LopesWrite report prior to final submission.
Every act of plagiarism, no matter the severity, must be reported to the GCU administration (this includes your DQ’s, posts to your peers, and your papers).

Plagiarism includes:

Representing the ideas, expressions, or materials of another without due credit.
Paraphrasing or condensing ideas from another person’s work without proper citation and referencing.
Failing to document direct quotations without proper citation and referencing.
Depending upon the amount, severity, and frequency of the plagiarism that is committed, students may receive in-class penalties that range from coaching (for a minor omission), -20% grade penalties for resubmission, or zero credit for a specific assignment. University-level penalties may also occur, including suspension or even expulsion from the University.
If you are at all uncertain about what constitutes plagiarism, you should review the resources available in the Student Success Center. Also, please review the University’s policies about plagiarism which are covered in more detail in the GCU Catalog and the Student Handbook.
We will be utilizing the GCU APA Style Guide 7th edition located in the Student Success Center > The Writing Center for all course deliverables.

LopesWrite

All course assignments must be uploaded to the specific Module Assignment Drop Box, and also submitted to LopesWrite every week.
Please ensure that your assignment is uploaded to both locations under the Assignments DropBox. Detailed instructions for using LopesWrite are located in the Student Success Center.

Assignment Submissions

Please note that Microsoft Office is the software requirement at GCU.
I can open Word files or any file that is saved with a .rtf (Rich Text Format) extension. I am unable to open .wps files.
If you are using a “.wps” word processor, please save your files using the .rtf extension that is available from the drop-down box before uploading your files to the Assignment Drop Box.

Grade of Incomplete

The final grade of Incomplete is granted at the discretion of the instructor; however, students must meet certain specific criteria before this grade accommodation is even possible to consider.
The grade of Incomplete is reserved for times when students experience a serious extenuating circumstance or a crisis during the last week of class which prevents the completion of course requirements before the close of the grading period. Students also must pass the course at the time the request is made.
Please contact me personally if you are having difficulties in meeting course requirements or class deadlines during our time together. In addition, if you are experiencing personal challenges or difficulties, it is best to contact the Academic Counselor so that you can discuss the options that might be available to you, as well as each option’s academic and financial repercussions.

Grade Disputes

If you have any questions about a grade you have earned on an individual assignment or activity, please get in touch with me personally for further clarification.
While I have made every attempt to grade you fairly, on occasion a misunderstanding may occur, so please allow me the opportunity to learn your perspective if you believe this has occurred. Together, we should be able to resolve grading issues on individual assignments.
However, after we have discussed individual assignments’ point scores, if you still believe that the final grade you have earned at the end of the course is not commensurate with the quality of work you produced for this class, there is a formal Grade Grievance procedure which is outlined in the GCU Catalog and Student Handbook.