PSY 5107 Week 4 – Assignment: Develop Descriptive, Associative, and Causal Research Questions 

PSY 5107 Week 4 – Assignment: Develop Descriptive, Associative, and Causal Research Questions 

PSY 5107 Week 4 – Assignment Develop Descriptive, Associative, and Causal Research Questions

Introduction

Research plays an integral role in the healthcare setting by providing sound evidence for best practices and innovative solutions to complex healthcare dilemmas. There are three types of research methods that can be adopted namely; qualitative research, quantitative research, and mixed research method that integrates both qualitative and quantitative attributes (Noyes et al., 2019). The type of research method guides the formulation of research questions. Research questions have direct implications on the quality and strength of research outcomes. Formulation of research questions is one of the essential initial stages of a research process in exploring existing uncertainties and dilemmas. Research questions systematically identify the subject of interest and guide the methodology to be adopted.

Formulation and framing of good research questions can be challenging and quite stressful. A good and meticulously framed research question should have certain features which include feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, relevant, manageable, appropriate, with potential value,  publishable, and systematic (Ratan et al., 2019). Well-crafted research questions lead to high-quality research whose outcomes can be of great impact on the larger population through evidence-based guided healthcare policymaking and legislative processes.  There are three types of research questions that can be used in scientific research and they include descriptive, associative, and causal research questions (Kamper et al., 2020). This paper intends to evaluate the three types of research questions frequently used by scientific researchers. It will provide an example of each category on matters relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. The paper will also elicit the differences between qualitative and quantitative research approaches.

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Approaches

Qualitative and quantitative research methods adopt different approaches to scientific studies. Qualitative research is a type of research that seeks a descriptive and narrative understanding of phenomena through non-numerical data collection methods such as focused group discussions (Busetto et al., 2020).  Quantitative research entails the collection and analysis of numerical data to describe variables or establish the presence of associations, interactions, or causal relationships between variables (Bayot et al., 2022). Quantitative research methods can be observational or experimental. Experimental research methods involve the manipulation of variables to obtain an outcome of interest. Qualitative research, on the other hand, seeks insight and the why of phenomena to generate hypotheses. Case reports are examples of observational quantitative research whereas randomized control trials are examples of interventional research methods.

A mixed research method is an increasingly emerging approach.  It involves the integration of both qualitative and quantitative research approaches in data collection and analysis. Mixed research methods draw on the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative research methods to explore complex issues and produce high-quality sound evidence (Kajamaa et al., 2020). This method allows for a comparison of findings from both methods and thus is more reliable. A wider range of audience is reached by the findings. This method is, however, challenging especially when it comes to integrating the findings whose analysis is different for the quantitative and qualitative aspects.

Descriptive Research Questions

Descriptive research questions are generally used to describe the variable under investigation. These questions attempt to determine

the existence of a phenomenon and describe this phenomenon by describing the unique attributes or features of the variables under consideration or the behavior of a population concerning the variables to be measured (Barroga et al., 2022). The goal is to offer an overview of the situation under study. Descriptive research questions collect and analyze data to use it to provide a quantitative summary of certain distinct features such as questions addressing prevalence, the clinical course of disorders, associations between clinical manifestations, and the accuracy of diagnostic procedures among others (Kamper et al., 2020). Qualitative research designs also adopt these types of questions. The sole goal of descriptive research questions is the description of variables at a given point in time or on numerous encounters with no requirement of determining causal relationships or other hypotheses (Aggarwal et al., 2019). The research process will require no manipulations of the variables by the researcher. The outcomes are description, classification, and deconstruction of the composition of mutually exclusive variables constituting a phenomenon.

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What is the Adherence Level to the Preventive Measures and Strategies Implemented to Mitigate the Spread of the COVID-19 Pandemic?

This is one example of a descriptive research question. This research question will be adopted in a quantitative research study. The question will address issues such as the specific preventive measure that were adopted by the organization of interest. Collection and analysis of numerical data will also give exact quantitative figures to depict the adherence level. The outcomes will include whether the measures are sufficient or if there is a need to devise additional strategies. Other issues that may arise will include the challenges that impede the implementation of the stated measures. No causal relationships will be established between the variables in the study.

Associative/Correlational Research Questions

Associative/correlational research questions are used when the researcher is interested in determining any relationships between the variables under study.  Associative research questions establish any interactions between the dependent and independent variables to elucidate any trends (Barroga et al., 2022). The interest is in the associations and interdependency of the variables and not the cause-and-effect relationships. The researcher does not manipulate the variables under study thus the research study is not interventional. The resultant association between the variables may either be positive or negative. This will dictate the measures to be undertaken from the interpretation of the research findings.

What are the Effects of COVID-19 on the Uptake of HIV Prevention and Treatment Services

This is an associative/correlational research question. It seeks to determine the association between the COVID-19 pandemic and the uptake of HIV prevention and treatment services. COVID-19 is the independent variable whereas uptake of HIV prevention and treatment services is the dependent variable. To conduct this study, the research will not manipulate the variables or the outcomes. With the implementation of COVID-19-related preventive measures and strategies to mitigate its spread, it is expected that continuity and access to various healthcare services were disrupted. The statistical analysis of the collected data will reveal whether the uptake of various HIV services significantly increased or decreased. The trends that will be discovered will appropriately guide modifications of HIV prevention and treatment services in the context of a highly contagious pandemic. The study design that will be adopted for this research question is a quantitative research approach.

Causal/Experimental Research Questions

Causal/experimental questions determine whether one variable causes the effects on the outcomes of another variable. The effects are seen on a dependent variable resulting from the manipulation of the independent variable (Barroga et al., 2022). These types of questions are used in quantitative experimental research studies. Exposure of interest is made on the independent variable at a set time and the target outcome is expected after a given time and thus determines the cause-and-effect relationships (Goetghebeur et al., 2020). Alternatively, an outcome can be studied retrospectively to determine whether it is a result of past exposure to a given factor. This type of study requires two study subject groups. One of the groups acts as the intervention group whereas the other is a control group that does not receive the exposure of interest. Randomization of study participants is key to avoiding any biases.

Experimental research questions are applied in various aspects of clinical practice. These include identifying the risk factors that predispose individuals to a medical condition, determining the effectiveness of a new drug or therapeutic intervention during clinical trials, and identifying potential adverse effects of specific treatments (Kamper et al., 2020). The key focus is whether an intervention or exposure results in a particular outcome. The PICOT framework is utilized when formulating causal research questions. This framework entails the population of interest, the interventions to be carried out by the researcher, the comparison or control group, the expected outcome of interest, and the timeframe that is required by the research study to obtain the outcome of interest (De et al., 2019). The population is obtained from the random allocation of the study groups and it has to meet the inclusion and exclusion criteria to enhance the feasibility, generalizability, and validity of the study.

Do COVID-19 Vaccinations Affect the Risk of Venous Thromboembolism?

This is a good example of a causal research question. This research question seeks to establish whether COVID-19 vaccination which is the independent variable, presents any risk for the occurrence of venous thromboembolism, which is the dependent variable. This will require a qualitative randomized control trial study to determine the outcomes. The population of interest will be individuals who receive the vaccine whereas the control group will not be vaccinated. The intervention group will be followed up for a given period and the occurrence of any thromboembolic events will be appropriately noted. Data collected will be analyzed and the statistical significance will determine the presence of a cause-and-effect relationship. The findings have to be generalizable to the population at large to prevent unnecessary interventions that pose serious risks to the study population.

Conclusion

Scientific research is integral in the progressive advancement of best clinical practices and healthcare policies. There are two types of scientific research namely; qualitative and quantitative research methods. The two approaches can be integrated into one study to give rise to a mixed research method which is potentially superior from drawing from the strengths of both. The type of research method guides the formulation of research questions. The type of research questions that are normally used by researchers is descriptive research questions, associative research questions, and causal research questions. The choice of research questions depends on the area of focus of the study and the expected outcomes of interest. This depends on whether the objective is a description of variables, associations or relationships between variables, or a causal relationship between variables. Framing good research questions is integral in obtaining high-quality findings that are feasible and beneficial to the population at large.

 

PSY 5107 Week 4 – Assignment: Develop Descriptive, Associative, and Causal Research Questions  References

Aggarwal, R., & Ranganathan, P. (2019). Study designs: Part 2 – descriptive studies. Perspectives in Clinical Research, 10(1), 34. https://doi.org/10.4103/picr.picr_154_18

Barroga, E., & Matanguihan, G. J. (2022). A practical guide to writing quantitative and qualitative research questions and hypotheses in scholarly articles. Journal of Korean Medical Science, 37(16). https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2022.37.e121

Bayot, M. L., Brannan, G. D., Brannan, J. M., & Tenny, S. (2022). Human Subjects Research Design. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing.

Busetto, L., Wick, W., & Gumbinger, C. (2020). How to use and assess qualitative research methods. Neurological Research and Practice, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42466-020-00059-z

De, D., & Singh, S. (2019). Basic understanding of study types and formulating research questions for a clinical trial. Indian Dermatology Online Journal, 10(3), 351. https://doi.org/10.4103/idoj.idoj_56_19

Goetghebeur, E., le Cessie, S., De Stavola, B., Moodie, E. E., Waernbaum, I., & “on behalf of” the topic group Causal Inference (TG7) of the STRATOS initiative (2020). Formulating causal questions and principled statistical answers. Statistics in medicine, 39(30), 4922–4948. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.8741

Kajamaa, A., Mattick, K., & Croix, A. (2020). How to … do mixed‐methods research. The Clinical Teacher, 17(3), 267–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/tct.13145

Kamper S. J. (2020). Types of Research Questions: Descriptive, Predictive, or Causal. The Journal of orthopedic and sports physical therapy, 50(8), 468–469. https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2020.0703

Noyes, J., Booth, A., Moore, G., Flemming, K., Tunçalp, Ö., & Shakibazadeh, E. (2019). Synthesizing quantitative and qualitative evidence to inform guidelines on complex interventions: Clarifying the purposes, and designs and outlining some methods. BMJ Global Health, 4(Suppl 1). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2018-000893

Ratan, S. K., Anand, T., & Ratan, J. (2019). Formulation of research question – stepwise approach. Journal of Indian Association of Pediatric Surgeons, 24(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.4103/jiaps.jiaps_76_18

As we begin this session, I would like to take this opportunity to clarify my expectations for this course:

Please note that GCU Online weeks run from Thursday (Day 1) through Wednesday (Day 7).

 

Course Room Etiquette:

• It is my expectation that all learners will respect the thoughts and ideas presented in the discussions.
• All postings should be presented in a respectful, professional manner. Remember – different points of view add richness and depth to the course!

 

Office Hours:

• My office hours vary so feel free to shoot me an email at Kelly.[email protected] or my office phone is 602.639.6517 and I will get back to you within one business day or as soon as possible.
• Phone appointments can be scheduled as well. Send me an email and the best time to call you, along with your phone number to make an appointment.
• I welcome all inquiries and questions as we spend this term together. My preference is that everyone utilizes the Questions to Instructor forum. In the event your question is of a personal nature, please feel free to post in the Individual Questions for Instructor forum I will respond to all posts or emails within 24 or sooner.

 

Late Policy and Grading Policy

Discussion questions:

• I do not mark off for late DQ’s.
•  I would rather you take the time to read the materials and respond to the DQ’s in a scholarly way, demonstrating your understanding of the materials.
• I will not accept any DQ submissions after day 7, 11:59 PM (AZ Time) of the week.
• Individual written assignments – due by 11:59 PM AZ Time Zone on the due dates indicated for each class deliverable.

Assignments:

• Assignments turned in after their specified due dates are subject to a late penalty of -10%, each day late, of the available credit. Please refer to the student academic handbook and GCU policy.
• Any activity or assignment submitted after the due date will be subject to GCU’s late policy
• Extenuating circumstances may justify exceptions, which are at my sole discretion. If an extenuating circumstance should arise, please contact me privately as soon as possible.
• No assignments can be accepted for grading after midnight on the final day of class.
• All assignments will be graded in accordance with the Assignment Grading Rubrics

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• Participation in each week’s Discussion Board forum accounts for a large percentage of your final grade in this course.
• Please review the Course Syllabus for a comprehensive overview of course deliverables and the value associated with each.
• It is my expectation that each of you will substantially contribute to the course discussion forums and respond to the posts of at least three other learners.
• A substantive post should be at least 200 words. Responses such as “great posts” or “I agree” do not meet the active engagement expectation.
• Please feel free to draw on personal examples as you develop your responses to the Discussion Questions but you do need to demonstrate your understanding of the materials.
• I do expect outside sources as well as class materials to formulate your post.
• APA format is not necessary for DQ responses, but I do expect a proper citation for references.
• Please use peer-related journals found through the GCU library and/or class materials to formulate your answers. Do not try to “Google” DQ’s as I am looking for class materials and examples from the weekly materials.
• I will not accept responses that are from Wikipedia, Business dictionary.com, or other popular business websites. You will not receive credit for generic web searches – this does not demonstrate graduate-level research.
• Stay away from the use of personal pronouns when writing. As a graduate student, you are expected to write based on research and gathering of facts. Demonstrating your understanding of the materials is what you will be graded on. You will be marked down for lack of evidence to support your ideas.

Plagiarism

• Plagiarism is the act of claiming credit for another’s work, accomplishments, or ideas without appropriate acknowledgment of the source of the information by including in-text citations and references.
• This course requires the utilization of APA format for all course deliverables as noted in the course syllabus.
• Whether this happens deliberately or inadvertently, whenever plagiarism has occurred, you have committed a Code of Conduct violation.
• Please review your LopesWrite report prior to final submission.
• Every act of plagiarism, no matter the severity, must be reported to the GCU administration (this includes your DQ’s, posts to your peers, and your papers).

Plagiarism includes:

• Representing the ideas, expressions, or materials of another without due credit.
• Paraphrasing or condensing ideas from another person’s work without proper citation and referencing.
• Failing to document direct quotations without proper citation and referencing.
• Depending upon the amount, severity, and frequency of the plagiarism that is committed, students may receive in-class penalties that range from coaching (for a minor omission), -20% grade penalties for resubmission, or zero credit for a specific assignment. University-level penalties may also occur, including suspension or even expulsion from the University.
• If you are at all uncertain about what constitutes plagiarism, you should review the resources available in the Student Success Center. Also, please review the University’s policies about plagiarism which are covered in more detail in the GCU Catalog and the Student Handbook.
• We will be utilizing the GCU APA Style Guide 7th edition located in the Student Success Center > The Writing Center for all course deliverables.

LopesWrite

• All course assignments must be uploaded to the specific Module Assignment Drop Box, and also submitted to LopesWrite every week.
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Assignment Submissions

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• The final grade of Incomplete is granted at the discretion of the instructor; however, students must meet certain specific criteria before this grade accommodation is even possible to consider.
• The grade of Incomplete is reserved for times when students experience a serious extenuating circumstance or a crisis during the last week of class which prevents the completion of course requirements before the close of the grading period. Students also must pass the course at the time the request is made.
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• If you have any questions about a grade you have earned on an individual assignment or activity, please get in touch with me personally for further clarification.
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• However, after we have discussed individual assignments’ point scores, if you still believe that the final grade you have earned at the end of the course is not commensurate with the quality of work you produced for this class, there is a formal Grade Grievance procedure which is outlined in the GCU Catalog and Student Handbook.