Flim (1) The Stanford Prison Experiment – YouTube.
Flim (1) The Stanford Prison Experiment – YouTube.
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Flim (1) The Stanford Prison Experiment – YouTube. 1 paragraph summarize the phenomenon documented in the film and then 2 paragraphs make connections to the textbook content.
Taylor Hill Chapter 4 Behaviour and Attitudes © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited Chapter Outline ¡ How well do our attitudes predict our behaviour? ¡ When does our behaviour affect our attitudes? ¡ Why does our behaviour affect our attitudes? © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 2 Are We All Hypocrites? ¡Attitude A favourable or unfavourable evaluative reaction toward something or someone, exhibited in one’s beliefs, feelings, or intended behavior ¡Attitudes are not a great predictor of behaviour ¡ e.g., Cheating, church attendance, racism, safe sex, etc. 3 © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited When Attitudes Predict Behaviour When social influences on what we say are minimal ¡ Facial muscle responses, implicit association test (IAT), etc When other influences on behaviour are minimal ¡ Principle of aggregation When attitudes are potent ¡ Something reminds us of it ¡ We gained it in a manner that makes it strong © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 4 The Theory of Planned Behaviour © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 5 How does our behavior affect our attitudes? © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 6 Role Playing Role ¡ Actions expected of those who occupy a particular social position ¡ e.g., teacher, soldier, business person, etc. ¡ Zimbardo prison study © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 7 Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon ¡ The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request ¡ The “low-ball technique” is a variation ¡ Works even when people are aware of a profit motive ¡ Takes advantage of the psychological effects of making a commitment © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 8 Immoral and Moral Acts ¡Immoral acts sometimes result from gradually escalating commitments: ¡ e.g., after harming their victim, aggressors often blame the victim, which serves to justify their behaviour ¡ Dehumanization and moral disengagement ¡Moral acts can be arrived at similarly © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 9 Social Movements ¡ Public conformity can lead to private acceptance ¡ e.g., political rituals such as singing “O Canada” or greeting people with “Heil Hitler” ¡ “Brainwashing” POWs © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 10 Why does our behavior affect our attitudes? © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 11 Self-Presentation: Impression Management Impression management: ¡ Being concerned with making a good impression in order to gain social and material rewards, to feel better about ourselves, or to become more secure in our social identities ¡ Wanting to appear consistent © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 12 Self-Justification: Cognitive Dissonance ¡Cognitive dissonance: ¡ We feel tension (dissonance) when we are aware that we have two thoughts that are inconsistent or incompatible. ¡ Also occurs when our behaviour is inconsistent with our attitudes ¡Selective exposure: ¡ People prefer to expose themselves with information that agrees with their point of view © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 13 Insufficient justification © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 14 Self-Justification: Cognitive Dissonance Dissonance after decisions: § When we choose between two equally attractive (or equally unattractive) alternatives, the undesirable features of the chosen alternative and the desirable features of the rejected alternative remain. ¡ This can create dissonance. ¡ We can “manage” this dissonance by upgrading the chosen alternative and downgrading the rejected alternative. © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 15 Self-Perception © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 16 Comparing the Theories Self-affirmation Theory ¡ People often experience self-image threat after engaging in an undesirable behaviour, and they compensate for this threat by affirming another aspect of the self. ¡ Threaten people’s self-concept in one domain and they will compensate either by refocusing or by doing good deeds in some other domains. © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 17 Comparing the Theories Self-perceiving when not self-contradicting: ¡ Dissonance theory is inconsistent with two findings. ¡ People with no change arousal can have attitude change. ¡ Overjustification effect © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 18 Chapter 3 Social Beliefs and Judgements Social Psychology Taylor Hill © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited Chapter Outline • How do we judge our social worlds, consciously and unconsciously? • How do we perceive our social worlds? • How do we explain our social worlds? • How do our social beliefs matter? • What can we conclude from research on social beliefs and judgments? © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 2 How Do We Judge Our Social Worlds Consciously and Unconsciously? • System 1: Automatic • System 2: Requires Attention © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 3 Priming • System 1 • Activating particular associations in memory • E.g., watching a scary movie and interpreting household noises as an intruder • Can influence our thoughts and actions • Subliminal priming • Embodied cognition © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 4 Intuitive Judgments ¡“Intuitive management” ¡Priming research suggests that much of our behaviour is unconscious The powers of intuition §Schemas §Emotional reactions §Expertise §Thin slices §Blindsight §Subliminal perception © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 5 Intuitive Judgments The limits of intuition ¡Subliminal stimuli only have minor effect ¡Error-prone hindsight ¡Capacity for illusion © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 6 Overconfidence Overconfidence phenomenon: ¡The tendency to be more confident than correct – to overestimate the accuracy of oneʼs beliefs ¡Applies to factual information, judgments of othersʼ behaviour, judgments of own behaviour ¡Fed by incompetence and underestimation of the importance of situational forces ¡Stockbroker overconfidence; student overconfidence © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 7 Overconfidence Confirmation bias ¡A tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions Remedies for overconfidence ¡Prompt feedback ¡Break up a task into its subcomponents ¡Consider disconfirming information © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 8 Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts Thinking strategies that enable quick, efficient judgments Representativeness heuristic ¡The tendency to presume that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling a typical member ¡Ignores base rate information © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 9 Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts Availability heuristic ¡A cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory ¡e.g., Dreading terrorism but ignoring climate change © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 10 Counterfactual Thinking • Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but did not • e.g., Bronze versus silver medalists at the Olympic games • Underlies our feelings of luck • Typically more regret over things not done © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 11 Illusory Thinking Illusory correlation ¡The perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists ¡e.g., Noticing “coincidences” Illusion of control ¡The perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one’s control or as more controllable than they are ¡e.g., Gambling ¡Regression toward the average © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 12 Belief Perseverance Persistence of one’s initial conceptions, even in the face of disconfirming evidence © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 13 Constructing Memories of Ourselves and Our Worlds Misinformation effect • Incorporating “misinformation” into oneʼs memory of an event, after witnessing the event and receiving misleading information about it • Potential for the creation of false memories • e.g., Supposed child sexual abuse © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 14 Constructing Memories of Ourselves and Our Worlds Reconstructing past attitudes ¡Rosy (or less then rosy) retrospections Reconstructing past behaviour ¡ Recall smoking fewer cigarettes, voting more often ¡We revise our past to match current beliefs © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 15 Attributing Causality: To the Person or the Situation? • Misattribution • Mistakenly attributing a behaviour to the wrong cause • Attribution theory • How we explain peoplesʼ behaviour • Dispositional versus situational attributions • e.g., Why did that driver cut me off on the highway? © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 16 Attributing Causality: To the Person or the Situation? Inferring traits ¡Spontaneous trait inference © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 17 Why Do We Make the Attribution Error? Perspective and Situational Awareness ¡Actor-observer difference Cultural Differences ¡People from Eastern cultures may be more aware of situational factors ¡ Less inclined to blame the person © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 18 Teacher Expectations and Student Performance © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 19 What Can We Conclude from Research on Social Beliefs and Judgments? • People develop false beliefs, judgements, and even memories • People are overconfident (especially students and stockbrokers) • Heuristics are often adaptive (but with lots of opportunity for error) • How we felt at a certain time in the present (on vacation) is much more realistic/accurate than how we predict we will feel (planning the vacation, anticipating) and then recall we felt (memories of the vacation) © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 20 Chapter 2 The Self in a Social World Social Psychology Taylor Hill © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited Chapter 2 outline • Spotlights and illusions: What do they teach us about ourselves? • Self-concept: Who am I? • What is the nature and motivating power of self-esteem? • What is self-serving bias? • How do people manage their self-presentation? • What does it mean to have perceived self-control? © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 2 Spotlights and Illusions: What Do They Teach Us About Ourselves? Spotlight effect • People see themselves as centre stage • Lawson (2010) found about half of students thought that others would remember their sweatshirt logo – only 10% of actually recalled the logo Illusion of transparency ¡ When we feel self-conscious we worry about being evaluated negatively © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 3 At the Centre of Our Worlds: Our Sense of Self Self-schema • Beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information • How do we decide if we are rich, smart, or short? Social Comparison • We compare ourselves to others and are conscious of those differences © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 4 Self and Culture • Individualism • Independent self • Self-concept as stable • Self-esteem as personal • Collectivism • Interdependent self • Self-concept as malleable • Self-esteem as relational © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 5 Self and Culture Culture and self-esteem ¡ Collectivistic cultures: ▫ Self-esteem is relational and malleable ▫ Persist longer on tasks when failing ▫ Upward social comparisons ▫ Balanced self-evaluations ¡ Individualistic cultures: ▫ Self-esteem is less relational and more personal ▫ Persist longer on tasks when succeeding ▫ Downward social comparisons ▫ Self-evaluations biased positively © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 6 Self-Knowledge Predicting behaviour ¡Planning fallacy: the tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task Predicting feelings ¡Affective forecasting: prediction about future feelings ¡Impact bias: overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events ¡Immune neglect: the tendency to underestimate the speed and the strength of the “psychological immune system” © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 7 Self-Knowledge • Dual attitude system: • Implicit (automatic) attitudes • Change slowly, with practice that forms new habits • Explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes • May change with education and persuasion • Practical implications: • Self-reports are often untrustworthy • Sincerity does not guarantee validity © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 8 The Trade-off of Low vs. High Self-Esteem Self-Esteem A person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth ¡Low self-esteem associated with more anxiety, loneliness, and eating disorders ¡Often higher in gang leaders, terrorists, and imprisoned men who have committed violent crime Narcissism: Self-esteem’s conceited sister ¡Those high in both narcissism and self-esteem tend to be more aggressive ¡Narcissism seems to have increased over the past decades © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 9 What Is Self-Serving Bias? Tendency to attribute personal failure to external forces and personal success to internal forces © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 10 Can We All Be Better Than Average? • Most people consider themselves better than average on a variety of dimensions • People rate themselves more ethical, more competent at their job, friendlier, more intelligent, less prejudiced, healthier, and more insightful than others • Subjective behaviour dimensions (e.g. “discipline”) trigger more self-serving bias than objective dimensions (e.g. “punctual”) © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 11 Unrealistic Optimism • Most humans are predisposed to optimism • Many have an unrealistic optimism about future events • Many support this optimism by being pessimistic about the future of others • E.g., undergraduates believe they are far more likely than their classmates to get a good job • Illusory optimism increases vulnerability • Optimism promotes self-efficacy • Defensive pessimism helps people prepare for problems © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 12 False Consensus and Uniqueness • False consensus effect • Overestimating the commonality of one’s opinions and one’s undesirable or unsuccessful behaviours • False uniqueness effect • Underestimating the commonality of one’s abilities and one’s desirable or successful behaviours © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 13 Self-Handicapping Protecting oneʼs self-image with behaviours that create a handy excuse for later failure: • e.g., partying the night before an exam © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education Limited 14
