Vocational Psych- Chart

Vocational Psych- Chart

Sample Answer for Vocational Psych- Chart Included After Question

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SHARF University of Delaware Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Applying Career Development Theory to Counseling, Sixth Edition Richard S. Sharf Publisher: Jon-David Hague Executive Editor: Jaime Perkins Developmental Editor: Arwen Petty Assistant Editor: Mia Dreyer Editorial Assistant: Amelia Blevins © 2013, 2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 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WCN 02-200-203 Brief Contents Preface for Students xiii Preface for Instructors xiv CHAPTER 1 PART I Introduction 1 Trait and Type Theories 23 CHAPTER 2 Trait and Factor Theory CHAPTER 3 Occupations: Information and Theory CHAPTER 4 Work Adjustment Theory 94 CHAPTER 5 Holland’s Theory of Types 119 CHAPTER 6 Myers–Briggs Type Theory 143 PART II Life-Span Theory 25 60 169 CHAPTER 7 Career Development in Childhood CHAPTER 8 Adolescent Career Development CHAPTER 9 Late Adolescent and Adult Career Development CHAPTER 10 171 203 Adult Career Crises and Transitions 232 264 PART III Special Focus Theories 293 CHAPTER 11 Constructivist and Narrative Approaches to Career Development 295 CHAPTER 12 Relational Approaches to Career Development CHAPTER 13 Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory CHAPTER 14 Social Cognitive Career Theory CHAPTER 15 Career Decision-Making Approaches PART IV Theoretical Integration CHAPTER 16 Theories in Combination Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C CACREP Standards 471 Tests and Their Publishers Web Sites 475 Author Index 477 Subject Index 487 327 353 376 399 429 431 473 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 iii Contents Preface for Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Preface for Instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv CHAPTER 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 The Role of Theory in Psychology 4 Counselors’ Use of Career Development Theory 5 Client Population 6 Theories of Counseling and Theories of Career Development Chunking 7 Counselor Skills 7 Helping Skills 8 Assessment Instruments 12 How Career Development Theory Relates to Career Counseling Goals of Career Counseling 6 14 15 Goals, Career Development Theory, and Ethics Autonomy 16 Nonmaleficence 16 Beneficence 16 Justice 16 Fidelity 16 Career Development of Women 15 17 Career Development of Culturally Diverse Populations 17 What’s Ahead 18 References 19 PART I Trait and Type Theories CHAPTER 2 Trait and Factor Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Step 1: Gaining Self-Understanding Aptitudes 27 Achievement 29 Interests 30 Values 32 Personality 33 Example of Step 1 35 27 Step 2: Obtaining Knowledge about the World of Work Types of Occupational Information 37 Classification Systems 38 Trait and Factor Requirements 45 36 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 iv Contents What the Counselor Needs to Know Example of Step 2 47 46 Step 3: Integrating Information about Oneself and the World of Work How the Counselor Can Help 49 Example of Step 3 50 Applying the Theory to Women v 48 51 Applying the Theory to Culturally Diverse Populations 53 Counselor Issues 54 Summary 55 References 56 CHAPTER 3 Occupations: Information and Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 The United States Labor Market 60 Sociological and Economic Approaches Youth Employment 65 66 The Effect of the Work Environment on the Individual Status Attainment Theory Human Capital Theory 69 69 73 The Structure of the Labor Market 75 Women and Discrimination in the Workplace 77 Culturally Diverse Individuals and Discrimination in the Workplace Summary 86 References 86 82 CHAPTER 4 Work Adjustment Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Step 1: Assessing Abilities, Values, Personality, and Interests Abilities 96 Values 97 Personality Styles 99 Interests 100 A Counseling Example 100 96 Step 2: Measuring the Requirements and Conditions of Occupations Ability Patterns 102 Value Patterns 103 Combining Ability and Value Patterns 104 Step 3: Matching Abilities, Values, and Reinforcers Job Adjustment Counseling 108 Adjustment to Retirement 110 Application to Gifted Adolescents 102 104 111 The Role of Assessment Instruments The Role of Occupational Information 112 113 Applying the Theory to Women and Culturally Diverse Populations 114 Counselor Issues 115 Summary 115 References 116 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 vi Contents CHAPTER 5 Holland’s Theory of Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 The Six Types 119 Realistic 120 Investigative 121 Artistic 122 Social 122 Enterprising 123 Conventional 124 Combinations of Types 124 Explanatory Constructs Congruence 126 Differentiation 127 Consistency 129 Identity 130 125 Research on Holland’s Constructs 131 The Role of Occupational Information The Role of Assessment Instruments Applying the Theory to Women 132 133 134 Applying the Theory to Culturally Diverse Populations 135 Counselor Issues 136 Summary 137 References 138 CHAPTER 6 Myers–Briggs Type Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Perceiving and Judging 145 The Two Ways of Perceiving 145 The Two Ways of Judging 146 Combinations of Perceiving and Judging 146 Two Counseling Examples 147 The Preference for Perception or Judgment 148 Extraversion and Introversion 149 The Sixteen Type Combinations 149 Dominant and Auxiliary Processes 152 Using the Myers–Briggs Typology in Counseling 152 Example of Career Decision-Making Counseling 153 Example of Career Adjustment Counseling 159 The Role of Occupational Information The Role of Assessment Instruments 161 162 Applying the Theory to Women and Culturally Diverse Populations 164 Counselor Issues 165 Summary 166 References 166 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 Contents PART II vii Life-Span Theory CHAPTER 7 Career Development in Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Super’s Model of the Career Development of Children Curiosity 173 Exploration 174 Information 175 Key Figures 176 Internal versus External Control 176 Development of Interests 177 Time Perspective 177 Self-Concept and Planfulness 178 172 Modifications of Super’s Early Growth Stage of Career Development Modifications of Super’s Fantasy Substage 180 Modification of Super’s Interest Substage 181 Using Super’s Model in Counseling Children 180 181 Gottfredson’s Theory of Self-Creation, Circumscription, and Compromise Cognitive Growth 184 Self-Creation 185 Circumscription 187 Compromise 189 Implications of Gottfredson’s Theory for Super’s Theory 193 Use of Gottfredson’s and Super’s Concepts in Counseling 193 Career Development of Children from Culturally Diverse Backgrounds The Role of Occupational Information 196 Occupational Information in Counseling 197 School-to-Work Programs Designed for Children The Role of Assessment Instruments 183 195 197 198 Counselor Issues 199 Summary 199 References 199 CHAPTER 8 Adolescent Career Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Factors Influencing Adolescent Career Development 203 Super’s Late Growth Stage of Adolescent Career Development Development of Capacities 204 Development of Values 205 Transition to the Crystallizing Substage 206 204 Modifications of Super’s Late Growth Stage of Adolescent Career Development Level 4: Internal Processes and Capacities 206 Level 5: Interaction 207 Level 6: Systemic Interaction 207 A Counseling Example 208 Career Maturity 209 Super’s Conception of Career Maturity 206 210 Identity and Context 215 A Counseling Example 218 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 viii Contents The Role of Occupational Information The Role of Assessment Instruments 220 220 Gender Issues in Adolescence 221 A Counseling Example 222 Career Development of Adolescents from Diverse Cultural Backgrounds Case Example 225 224 Counselor Issues 227 Summary 227 References 227 CHAPTER 9 Late Adolescent and Adult Career Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Role Salience 232 Life Roles 234 Indicators of the Salience of Life Roles Adult Life Stages 238 Exploration 239 Emerging Adulthood (Arnett) Establishment 244 Maintenance 247 Disengagement 249 Recycling 250 Life Stages of Women 235 243 252 Life Stages of Culturally Diverse Adults 255 Counselor Issues 258 Summary 259 References 259 CHAPTER 10 Adult Career Crises and Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Types of Transitions 264 Categories and Approaches to Career Transitions The Kaleidoscope Career 266 Boundaryless Careers 267 The Protean Career 268 The Career Transitions Inventory 268 Nonnormative Career Events 268 Persistent Occupational Problems 269 Models of Transitions and Crises 265 269 Hopson and Adams’s Model of Adult Transitions Immobilization 271 Minimization 272 Self-Doubt 273 Letting Go 274 Testing Out 274 Search for Meaning 274 Internalization 275 271 Career Crises Affecting Women 276 Temporary Reentry into and Leave-Taking from the Labor Force Sexual Harassment 278 276 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 Contents Career Crises Affecting Culturally Diverse Populations ix 283 Counselor Issues 285 Summary 285 References 286 PART III Special Focus Theories CHAPTER 11 Constructivist and Narrative Approaches to Career Development . . . . . . . . 295 Narrative Counseling 296 Storytelling 298 Goals of Assessment in Narrative Counseling Cochran’s Narrative Career Counseling Elaborating a Career Problem 300 Composing a Life History 302 Eliciting a Future Narrative 304 Reality Construction 305 Changing a Life Structure 305 Enacting a Role 306 Crystallizing a Decision 306 298 299 Savickas’s Career Construction Theory 307 Vocational Personality—Holland’s Theory 307 Developmental Tasks of Career Adaptability 309 Dimensions of Career Adaptability 310 Life Themes 311 Career Counseling Using the Career Construction Interview Career Style Interview with Tiffany 313 Career Counseling Using Career Construction Theory 316 The Role of Assessment Instruments The Role of Occupational Information 313 321 321 Applying the Theories to Women and Culturally Diverse Populations 322 Counselor Issues 323 Summary 324 References 324 CHAPTER 12 Relational Approaches to Career Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Roe’s Personality Development Theory Attachment Theory 328 329 Parent–Child Career Interactions Family Systems Therapy 331 333 Phillips’s Developmental–Relational Model 334 Actions of Others 335 Self-Directedness 337 Counseling Example of the Developmental–Relational Model 338 Blustein’s Relational Theory of Working 340 Blustein’s Propositions for the Relational Theory of Working 341 Applying the Theories to Women and Culturally Diverse Populations Summary 348 References 349 347 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 x Contents CHAPTER 13 Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Genetic Influences 355 Environmental Conditions and Events 355 Social Conditions 355 Parents and Caretakers 355 Peer Groups 356 Structured Educational Settings 356 Occupational Conditions 356 Learning Experiences 356 Instrumental Learning Experiences (H) 356 Associative Learning Experiences (O) 357 Task-Approach Skills 357 Client Cognitive and Behavioral Skills 357 Self-Observation Generalizations about Abilities 358 Self-Observation Generalizations about Interests 358 Self-Observation Generalizations about Values 358 Generalizations about the World 358 Task-Approach Skills Used in Career Decision Making Counselor Behavioral Strategies Reinforcement 359 Role Models 360 Role-Playing 360 Simulation 361 359 359 Cognitive Strategies for Counseling 361 Goal Clarification 362 Counter a Troublesome Belief 362 Look for Inconsistencies between Words and Actions Cognitive Rehearsal 363 362 Happenstance Learning Theory: Fundemental Goals for Career Counseling 364 Applying Happenstance Learning Theory to Career Counseling 366 Step 1: Normalize Happenstance Learning Theory in the Client’s History 367 Step 2: Assist Clients to Transform Curiosity into Opportunities for Learning and Exploration 368 Step 3: Teach Clients to Produce Desirable Chance Events 369 Step 4: Teach Clients to Overcome Blocks to Action 370 The Role of Occupational Information The Role of Assessment Instruments 371 372 Applying Social Learning Theory to Women 372 Applying Social Learning Theory to Culturally Diverse Populations 373 Counselor Issues 373 Summary 374 References 374 CHAPTER 14 Social Cognitive Career Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 Self-Efficacy 377 Outcome Expectations Goals 379 379 Contextual Factors: Barriers and Supports 380 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 Contents Social Cognitive Model of Career Choice Counseling Example xi 381 383 Social Cognitive Model of the Development of Interests Social Cognitive Model of Performance Social Cognitive Model of Work and Life Satisfaction The Role of Occupational Information The Role of Assessment Instruments 385 386 388 389 389 Applying Social Cognitive Career Theory to Women 390 Applying Social Cognitive Theory to Culturally Diverse Populations 392 Counselor Issues 393 Summary 394 References 394 CHAPTER 15 Career Decision-Making Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 A Spiritual Perspective on Decision Making 400 Spirituality (Bloch and Richmond) 401 Miller-Tiedeman’s Lifecareer Theory 404 A Case Example of Spiritual Counseling 405 Holistic Approach to Life Planning (Hansen) 407 A Cognitive Information–Processing Approach 410 Assumptions of a Cognitive Information–Processing Approach The Pyramid of Information Processing 411 The Executive Processing Domain 419 Materials for Counselors and Students 421 The Role of Occupational Information The Role of Assessment Instruments 410 423 423 Applying the Theories to Women and Culturally Diverse Populations 424 Counselor Issues 425 Summary 425 References 425 PART IV Theoretical Integration CHAPTER 16 Theories in Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Outline of Theories and Their Strengths and Weaknesses An Integrative Approach 432 450 Combining Theories 451 Combining Life-Span Theory with Trait and Factor and Career Decision-Making Theories 452 Combining Trait and Factor Theories 454 Combining Career Decision-Making Theories 455 The Counselor’s Choice 455 Noncounseling Applications of Theories Screening Methods 455 Paper-and-Pencil Materials 455 Computerized Guidance Systems 457 Internet 458 455 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203 xii Contents Special Counseling Issues 458 Group Career Counseling 459 Career Counseling as a Related Issue Changing Work Settings 460 Placement Counseling 461 460 Use of Assessment Instruments in Theories 462 Occupational Classification Systems and Career Development Theories How Theories Apply to Career Development Issues of Women 463 464 How Theories Apply to Cultural Diversity Issues in Career Development 465 Counselor Issues 466 Trait and Factor Theories 466 Life-Span Theories 466 Career Decision-Making Theories 467 Sociological and Economic Approaches 467 Conclusion 467 References 468 Appendix A CACREP Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Appendix B Tests and Their Publishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Appendix C Web Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Preface for Students Now The purpose of this textbook is to provide background information that you may use in working with clients who have concerns about problems at work or making a career choice. Part One of this book describes several views of how people make career choices and deal with adjusting to working, along with suggestions for counseling them. Part Two examines how individuals deal with career choice and work issues in childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and retirement. Job loss and sexual harassment also are discussed. Part Three explains specific issues such as the role of parents and others on career choice. Cognitive and behavioral approaches to career development also provide useful views on career counseling. Part Four integrates different theories or approaches to career counseling and reviews materials in the previous chapters. To help you organize the material, I have added a Theory Outline at the beginning of each chapter to give you a brief outline of the major points of the theory. For the beginning and ending chapters (Chapters 1 and 16), which are not descriptions of specific theories, I list the Chapter Highlights. A more in depth outline is provided in Chapter 16. To make the book practical for your use with clients, I have included case examples and client–counselor dialogues. Theories of career development are based on research that often uses tests and inventories. A number of tests and inventories are integrated with theories in this textbook. I’ve explained how you might use them in career counseling. Later This textbook can help you when you are doing career counseling with clients both when in graduate school and when working as a counselor or mental health professional. Not all career counseling is done by counselors who call themselves career counselors. A number of former students have told me that they have done career counseling with clients when they did not expect that they would be doing so. I have tried to make this a book that will be a useful source for you when you are active in the counseling or mental health profession. Consulting the text at a later time can help you in understanding work-related concerns and career choice issues when counseling individuals with such problems. Some of you may be preparing for a licensing or certification examination based on CACREP guidelines. Appendix A describes CACREP standards for career issues and lists the page numbers that cover each of the standards. I have also developed a student manual containing exercises that can be used in individual or group career counseling. These exercises provide a practical means of helping clients with career choice and work issues. The Student Manual also has many practice multiple-choice questions that can be useful in preparing for classroom or other examinations. Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 xiii Preface for Instructors Students taking a beginning graduate course in career guidance, career theory, or career counseling want to know how to assist clients with career concerns. This book will help them relate career theory and research to the practice of counseling, aiding them in their practicum, their internship, and their jobs as counselors. In this sixth edition of Applying Career Development Theory to Counseling Counseling, I show how each career development theory can be used in counseling. Each theory gives special insight into various perspectives on career development as they affect career counseling. Furthermore, the theories organize facts into a comprehensive system for students to understand and to use, rather than overwhelm them with unrelated lists of information. Case examples are a special feature of this book. For each theory and its significant constructs, one or more cases are used to illustrate the conceptual approach of the theory. The examples are given in a dialogue between the counselor and the client. In the dialogue, the counselor’s conceptualization follows most counselor statements and appears within brackets. This approach provides a direct application of the theory to counseling practice, making the book useful to both students and practicing counselors. In a few places, narrative descriptions of cases are used to illustrate theories. The Sixth Edition To help students organize the material, I have added a Theory Outline at the beginning of each chapter to give them a brief outline of the major points of the theory. This outline provides a summary for them to refer to at any point in their reading. For the first and last chapters, I instead list Chapter Highlights, which include material that describes issues and skills related to career counseling (Chapter 1) and a review of theories as well as a discussion of other matters (Chapter 16). I also provide a more in depth outline of theories in Chapter 16. New to the sixth edition are several significant additions as listed here by chapter: Chapter 3: Occupations: Information and Theory. Occupational information for the United States labor market has been updated in this edition. More references are made to the global labor market than in previous editions. Chapter 7: Career Development in Childhood. Super’s early growth stage of children’s career development has been modified by including information about Howard and Walsh’s fantasy substage, including Level 1, Pure Association, and Level 2, Magical Thinking, as well as modification of Super’s interest substage, which includes Level 3, External Activities. This addition to the literature on children’s career development provides new ideas on this subject. Chapter 8: Adolescent Career Development. Super’s late growth stage of adolescent career development has also been modified by Howard and Walsh. Super’s Capacities substage has been modified to include Howard and Walsh’s Level 4, Internal Processes and Capacities substage; Super’s substage featuring values has been modified to include Level 5, Interaction. Howard and Walsh describe Super’s transition to the crystallizing substage through their explanation of Level 6, Systematic Interaction. These levels provide a recent view of adolescent career development. I also present new information on Vondracek and colleagues’ work on the concept of vocational identity. Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 xiv Preface for Instructors xv Chapter 9. Late Adolescent and Adult Career Development. In the field of developmental psychology, Arnett describes a stage of development that covers the overlap of adolescence and adulthood that he calls emerging adulthood. This time period includes the age of identity, the age of instability, a self-focused age, the age of feeling in-between, and the age of possibilities. I focus on how these stages relate to career development by providing new insights on how young people approach entry into the labor market. Chapter 10: Adult Career Crises and Transitions. In the section on career transitions, the discussion of the boundaryless careers and protean careers has been expanded to include the kaleidoscope career. The kaleidoscope career reflects the search for authenticity, challenge, and balance between work and other activities that more individuals are searching for. Chapter 12: Relational Approaches to Career Development. I have added an explanation of Blustein’s relational theory of working, which is related to Richardson’s discussion of the working perspective. The work of Blustein and Richardson emphasizes the value of relationships as they affect an individual’s working life both during and outside of work. Blustein and Richardson address the issue that individuals cannot always find work that satisfies their interests and abilities. Blustein provides a theory that shows how relationships provide value and meaning in working. Chapter 13. Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory. Recently, Krumboltz has changed the name of Planned Happenstance Theory to Happenstance Learning Theory. I have made changes in the chapter to reflect the implication of these changes to his goals for career counseling. Chapter 15. Career Decision-Making Theories. There has been considerable research on the concept of calling calling, which helps to show the value of calling in a spiritual perspective on career development. I present a summary of this information to help provide a contrast between a spiritual perspective on career development and other perspectives. Chapter 16: Theories in Combination. I have added a section on strengths and weaknesses of each theory. I use a detailed outline of each theory in the book and then summarize each theory through a discussion of the theory’s strengths and weaknesses. This section of the chapter can be used for studying the materials in this book, and it can also be used when doing career counseling to remind students about the various theories and their approaches to career development. The Appendices have been significantly revised. Appendix A contains the 2009 CACREP standards for Career Development as well as how each standard relates to sections in this textbook. Appendix B has revised information about tests and their publishers. Appendix C includes information about Web sites for career counseling organizations, education and internships, job postings, and occupational information. Each chapter in this sixth edition has been revised to reflect the results of new research and changes in the theory, where there have been changes. Although not as obvious as other changes, research that has been done outside of the United States continues to make a greater contribution to career development research that is discussed in this textbook. Of particular interest is a marked increase in research coming from different countries in Africa. Special Considerations in Each Chapter Each career development theory is discussed in terms of its implication for using occupational information, for using tests and inventories, and for special issues that may affect the application of the theory. Some theories use an occupational classification system; others specify how occupational information can be using counseling. Yet other Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 xvi Preface for Instructors theories have relatively little to say about the use of occupational information. Because occupational information (and educational information) is such an important part of career counseling, special efforts are made to link theory and career information. Many theories use tests and inventories both as a means of researching career development theory and as tools for the counselor to use in helping clients assess themselves. This book focuses on assessment instruments as they relate to theories and does not assume knowledge of assessment issues, although some information about reliability and validity is presented. Also, career development theories provide insight into possible conflicts between counselor values and client values, which may present problems to the counselor. Considering problems in applying theory, occupational information, and assessment can help students to select the career development theories that will assist them most in their work as counselors. In each chapter, a section addresses the application of theories of career development to women and culturally diverse populations. Theories vary greatly in how they address the issues of women. For example, Gottfredson’s career development theory deals specifically with career issues of women. Other theories deal only tangentially with women’s career choice issues. Some career development theories were originally created for White men and were later expanded to include women and diverse cultural groups. This sixth edition reflects an increase in research on the career development issues of culturally diverse populations. This is a particularly challenging issue to address because there are a wide variety of cultural groups and differences within cultural groups. For example, there are many significant cultural differences among Native American tribal groups. Also, some career development issues may be different for African Americans compared with Black people in other countries. Included in the emphasis on cultural diversity is a reference to research done in other countries, including Europe, Asia, and Africa. Contents of This Book This book is divided into an introduction and four parts: “Trait and Type Theories” (Part One), “Life Span-Theory” (Part Two),”Special Focus Theories” (Part Three), and “Theoretical Integration” (Part Four). Trait and type theories emphasize the assessment of interest, abilities, achievements, personality, and values, together with the acquisition of occupational information. Life-span theory follows a chronological approach, studying people across broad stages in the life span. Special focus theories include the application to career development issues of research in psychology, such as constructivist theory and learning theory. Theoretical integration deals with how these theories can be combined for effective career counseling. The last chapter (Chapter 16) also discusses the relevance of career development areas to special issues such as noncounseling interventions, group counseling, and job placement, among other concerns. Chapter 1 briefly describes each chapter. Course Application This book is intended for a beginning graduate course of which career issues are a major component. The book can be used in different ways, depending on whether the emphasis of the course is on career counseling, career assessment, career guidance, or career theory. Whereas most books that describe career counseling prescribe the method or many components of methods, this book presents a number of different theoretical and conceptual approaches to career counseling. After studying these various approaches, the student can decide which theories will be most helpful to him or her in counseling work. In general, the chapters are independent of each other, and not all chapters need Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Preface for Instructors xvii to be assigned. Because trait and factor theory represents a straightforward approach to career choice and adjustment, it is often an appropriate starting place. Also, because Chapter 3 expands on occupational information described in Chapter 2, it may be appropriate to use the two chapters in sequence. The assignment of career tests and inventories, together with their manuals, can be combined with the use of this book. Table 16-1 on page 456 lists the tests and inventories referred to in this book and the theory with which they are associated. Trait and factor theories make the most use of the tests and inventories; life-span theory, decision-making theory, social learning theory, and constructivist approaches make less direct use of them. Supplements A student manual, which was available for the fifth edition, has been revised and is now available online for this edition. Several features, in addition to sample questions, are provided. Career development exercises are provided with two purposes. The first purpose is to have students understand their own career development by using the theory or theories described in the chapter. The second purpose is to provide students with exercises that they may use in their counseling work as students or professionals. Another section of the student manual uses a case study approach to learning the theory. At various points in the case, multiple-choice questions are asked about the case. Open-ended questions are asked about how theory addresses general and cultural issues. The final section has multiple-choice and true and false review questions. Attention has been given to making the student manual interesting and relevant. To provide instructors with materials that they may use in the classroom and to assist in preparation of lectures and examinations, I have expanded the instructor’s manual. Numerous discussion questions have been included for each chapter, as well as suggestions for role-playing of counseling in class. For examinations, I have prepared more than 500 multiple-choice questions (some questions that appeared in the previous edition of the manual have been revised for clarity). Also, I have expanded the PowerPoint slides that instructors may use in their classroom presentations. I believe that all the materials I have provided will suggest other classroom exercises, slides, or examination questions that instructors may want to develop for their own purposes. Acknowledgments Many people have been extremely helpful in reading one or more chapters of the book. I would like to thank the following people who have made suggestions for the sixth edition of this book: Sherry Latson, Amberton University; Cyrus Williams, Regent University; Thomson Ling, Ph.D., Caldwell College; Charles Crews, Texas Tech University; Jared F. Edwards, Ph.D., Southwestern Oklahoma State University; Bill McHenry, Texas A&M University; Ernest Biller, University of Idaho; John Patrick, California University of Pennsylvania; and H. L. Harris, University of North Carolina, Charlotte. Additionally I would like to thank Thomson Ling, Ph.D., of Caldwell College and Jared F. Edwards, Ph.D., of Southwestern Oklahoma State University for reviewing the revised manuscript for the sixth edition of this book. I would also like to thank Karen J. Forbes of Lafayette College and Matthew R. Elliott of Holy Cross College, who read several chapters early on and made suggestions for the ultimate form that this book would take. The following people read, commented on, or supplied materials for chapters in this book: Linda Gottfredson, James E. Hoffman, Lawrence Hotchkiss, Janice Jordan, Charles Link, Mary C. Miller, and Steven M. Sciscione of the University of Delaware; Janet Lenz, Gary Peterson, Robert Reardon, and James Sampson Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 xviii Preface for Instructors of Florida State University; Debra Bloch of the University of Maryland at Baltimore; David Blustein of Boston College; Rene V. Dawis of the University of Minnesota; Kimberly Ewing of Loyola University of Baltimore; Gail Hackett of the University of Arizona; John L. Holland; Richard T. Lapan of the University of Massachusetts; David Lubinski of Vanderbilt University; John D. Krumboltz of Stanford University; Robert Lent of the University of Maryland; James Rounds of the University of Chicago; Mark L. Savickas of Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine; Michael Smith of McGill University; Susan Phillips of the State University of New York at Albany; Terence J. G. Tracey of Arizona State University; Fred Vondracek of Pennsylvania State University; Kathleen Green, Colleen Teixeira Moffat, Luke Spreen, and Stephanie White of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics; and Richard Young of the University of British Columbia. The staff at the Library of the University of Delaware was very helpful in providing resources and assistance for writing this new edition. I would especially like to thank Susan Brynteson, Director of Libraries, and Jonathan Jeffrey, Associate Librarian, for their assistance. Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Jane, for her patience and understanding while this book was being prepared. RSS Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 CHAPTER 1 Introduction CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS THE ROLE OF THEORY IN PSYCHOLOGY COUNSELORS’ USE OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORY COUNSELOR SKILLS Helping Skills Assessment Instruments GOALS OF CAREER COUNSELING GOALS, CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORY, AND ETHICS CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURALLY DIVERSE POPULATIONS Being satisfied with one’s career is one of the most important aspects of an individual’s personal happiness. Career concerns occur throughout one’s lifetime. As young children are exposed to their parents’ occupations, television programs, and the people around them, they become aware of career opportunities and choices. This exposure becomes broader and deeper throughout elementary school, middle school, and high school. It is difficult for students not to be overwhelmed by the many choices of occupations facing them. After high school, temporary and transitional occupations are often chosen, with continued adjustment throughout one’s life span to increase career satisfaction. During retirement, questions of career satisfaction may be important. Because approximately half of a person’s waking hours are spent working, dissatisfaction with career demands can spread into other parts of one’s life. It is not uncommon for job dissatisfaction to affect relationships with family and friends. People who are dissatisfied with their work or find it boring or monotonous must look for satisfaction in other areas of their lives, such as leisure and family. For many people, however, these other satisfactions do not compensate for the frustration they experience at work. The opportunity to help someone adjust to a selected career is an opportunity to affect a person’s life positively, in meaningful and significant ways. The knowledge that several hours spent in counseling can greatly influence the outcome of an individual’s life is an exciting challenge to the counselor. Individuals unfamiliar with career counseling have sometimes compartmentalized counseling by saying there is personal counseling, and then there is career counseling. In describing more than 30 years of counseling with career issues, Mark Miller (2009) states “I leave this field pretty much with the same viewpoint I had when I started: Career counseling is nearly indistinguishable from personal counseling” (p. 47). Vernon Zunker addresses the relationship of career and personal counseling in his book, Career, Work, and, Mental, Health: Integrating Career and Personal Counseling (2008). In editing a special section of The Career Development Quarterly, Linda Subich (1993) asked the question: “How personal is career counseling?” She received 32 submissions, of which 10 were published. The clear, virtually unanimous answer was “Very personal.” These respondents Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 1 2 Chapter 1: Introduction recognized that personal issues are frequently a part of career counseling and that career issues are often prominent in personal counseling, thus making the distinction between the two unclear. A survey of experts in vocational psychology shows that they use the same counseling skills in dealing with career issues as they do in dealing with other personal counseling issues (Whiston, Lindeman, Rahardja, & Reed, 2005). Career counseling can include discussion of many different personal, familial, and cultural issues (Maxwell, 2007). Using a group approach, one study examined a group for college couples that addressed both romantic and career issues (Gibbons & Shurts, 2010). In a study of adults, career decisions were shown to be a part of decisions regarding relationships, a way of making meaning in one’s life, and deciding about financial matters (Amundson, Borgen, Iaquinta, Butterfield, & Koert, 2010). These articles point out the personal nature of career counseling from many vantage points. Because career issues do not always have the immediate impact on counselors that negative or stressful events or feelings may have, career issues may be neglected or dismissed if they are not examined thoroughly. A wide variety of approaches have been used in career counseling, some of which adapt techniques from personal counseling. For example, Nevo and Wiseman (2002) use Mann’s short-term dynamic psychotherapy as a model for career counseling. This model stresses the importance of the therapeutic relationship, client activities over their life span, and active counselor participation. Other writers address career counseling for individuals with marital concerns such as those of battered women (Brown et al., 2005). Recently, attention has been given to gay and lesbian clients. For lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth, sexual identity conflicts and lack of social support can interfere with or slow the process of career decision making (Schmidt & Nilsson, 2006). Datti (2009) provides suggestions for career counseling with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. Focusing on lesbian clients, Bieschke and Toepfer-Hendey (2006) and Hook and Bowman (2008) suggest different models of career counseling to help them deal with personal and social issues affecting career concerns. Increasingly, counselors are applying techniques from personal counseling to a variety of culturally diverse groups and to a variety of issues, such as those described in this paragraph. In this textbook, numerous case examples are used to illustrate the application of career development theory to counseling. Most of the examples have personal and career components. For instance, Winifred (Chapter 4) is a 45-year-old farmer who is faced with the difficulty of changing jobs after experiencing chronic back pain. Chester (Chapter 5) is a high school dropout whose boredom and frustration with his life and work are affecting his personal life. George (Chapter 6) is tense and anxious at work and has difficulty dealing with the employees he supervises. Arthur (Chapter 7), a fourth-grade student, is starting to fall behind in school, is withdrawing from his peers, and is frustrated by reading. Personal issues confront Chad (Chapter 8) as he decides between selling drugs and staying in school to prepare for a career. Matthew (Chapter 9) is 64 years old and is confused and afraid as Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Chapter 1: Introduction 3 he faces imminent retirement. Having been laid off from a job that he has had for 23 years, John, who is 55, is angry and depressed (Chapter 10). The trauma of sexual harassment and racial discrimination forces Roberta (Chapter 10) to deal with her anger and the perpetrators of the harassment. Dennis, a 25-year-old grocery store manager, lives at home and struggles to cope with his father’s negative views of him (Chapter 11). Lacking self-confidence and tending to procrastinate, Tiffany is having difficulty leaving a job she dislikes to train for a new career (Chapter 11). Maria (Chapter 12), a high school junior, is unsure of her ability to make decisions. Joella (Chapter 12) finds meaning in her work through relationships with others, even though the work itself is not satisfactory to her. Planning to be a professional football player, Xavier has broken his leg and is upset that his dreams for the future now seem uncertain (Chapter 13). Sharon (Chapter 14) is unsure of herself, especially her academic ability; this lack of self-efficacy plays a role in her dilemma about her career choice. Her reactions are affected by her relationships with her friends and family. Parnell’s (Chapter 15) disciplinary problems in college have put stress on his relationships with his family members and have caused him to think about his decisions regarding his future career and his decision making in general. A spiritual approach to career decision making is illustrated through Karen’s struggle with the loss of her job and the need to provide income for her family (Chapter 15). These are a sampling of some of the cases that appear in this textbook, many of which are concerned with both personal and career issues. Life issues and problems occur at many different times. The developmental nature of career concerns can be seen in the case of Lucy, who is discussed in Chapters 7, 8, and 9. As a fifth-grade student, she is upset about her mother forcing her father out of the house, and her reaction affects her interactions at school and within her family. At 15 years old, the pressures on Lucy from her father and her boyfriend to go to nursing school rather than to medical school are affecting her self-confidence and her ability to make decisions. At 28 years old, Lucy is hurting from the breakup of a 3-year relationship and is deciding whether to return to school to become a physician. These personal and career issues are intertwined, as they are for many clients. One definition of career refers to roles individuals play over their lifetime (Zunker, 2012). The roles may include leisure and community service, as well as other activities. The case studies presented in this book offer snapshots of a person’s career or an aspect of a person’s working and leisure behavior. In this textbook, career choice applies to decisions that individuals make at any point in their career about particular work, leisure, or other activities that they choose to pursue at that time. The focus is on the individual, in contrast to the terms job, occupation, and work. In this textbook, jobs refer to positions requiring similar skills within one organization. Occupations refer to similar jobs found in many organizations. Occupations exist regardless of whether individuals are employed in them. Career refers to the lifetime pursuits of the individual. Work, a term used occasionally in this text, refers to purposeful activity to earn money or other Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 4 Chapter 1: Introduction reward and possibly to produce a product or service for others. Although work often is used to describe an unpleasant activity, work can be pleasant and rewarding economically, spiritually, socially, or personally. Other authors may define work as effort spent in an activity, or they may have other definitions of work. Career development theory can serve as a guide for career counseling and for problems similar to those described earlier. By tying together research about career choice and adjustment with ideas about these issues, career development theorists have provided a conceptual framework within which to view the types of career problems that emerge during a person’s lifetime. To help you understand these theories, the role of theory in psychology is discussed first. The Role of Theory in Psychology In reviewing the role of theory in psychology, Heinen (1985) describes theory as “a group of logically organized laws or relationships that constitute explanation in a discipline” (p. 414). Theory has been particularly important in the development of physical and biological science. Within psychology, theory has made a distinct impact in the area of learning (Henriques, 2011). When applied to career development, theory becomes cruder and less precise. Career development theory attempts to explain behavior that occurs over many years and is made up of reactions to thousands of situations (for example, school), experiences (for example, hobbies), and people (for example, parents). Regardless of the type of theory, there are certain general principles for judging the appropriateness of a theory. The following are criteria by which career development theories can be evaluated (Fawcett & Downs, 1986; Franck, 2002; Hanzel, 1999; Snow, 1973, Watson 2012). 1. Theories should be explicit about their rules and theorems. Terms that are used in describing these rules should be clear. Theories that attempt to explain how people make career choices often have difficulty in defining terms such as growth, development, and selfconcept. Theories about career selection are also difficult to make. In general, the broader the theory, the more difficult it is to be specific about the terms that are used. 2. Theories should be precise about the limitations of their predictions. Theories differ in the breadth of behavior that they attempt to predict. For example, some theories attempt to explain career development for women, some for both men and women, and some for people of different age groups. Some theories attempt to explain vocational choice, others try to explain how people adjust to this choice, and still others explain both. It is important to understand what the subject of the theory is. Criticizing a theory for not doing something that it does not set out to do is unfair. 3. When theories are developed, they need to be tested. Testing a theory is accomplished by doing research that can be expressed in terms of quantitative relationships. By doing research studies that use clear and measurable terms, investigators can best determine if data are in agreement with the theory. Within the field of career development, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether research supports a theory. The reason may be that an investigator has defined terms in a different way from the theorist or has used an unrepresentative sample to make predictions or generalizations. For example, if a theorist attempts to explain how all people make choices, the research samples should include both men and women across a broad range of cultural, social, and financial backgrounds. Sometimes evidence from a research study is unclear, supporting some propositions of a theory but not others, or supporting Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Chapter 1: Introduction 5 the theory for some populations but not others. A helpful method for confirming theoretical constructs is to develop inventories that define constructs and relate them to other constructs within the theory, as well as to other theories and instruments. By the accumulation of such information, construct validity is established for the theory and the instrument. 4. A theory needs to be consistent and clear. A theory should provide constructs that have a logical relationship to each other. To be clear, the theory should not be too complex. It should provide the simplest way to explain propositions. However, there is the danger of oversimplification. Essential components should not be left out of a theory. Because vocational theorists attempt to explain exceedingly complex behavior, it is only natural that they may oversimplify their theories. In doing so, they may provide a useful and understandable guide for the counselor. In summary, a theory needs to be explicit about its constructs and terms. Furthermore, it needs to be clear about what it is theorizing and the breadth of its propositions. In addition, research should be able to provide positive or negative support for the theory. Sometimes research findings add to and further develop a theory, showing that it is open to change. Also, a career development theory, while being neither too simple nor too complex, must provide a useful way of explaining and understanding career development. Judgments about the soundness and relative utility of theories are difficult for the counselor to make. Osipow and Fitzgerald (1995) and Brown (2002), among others, have attempted to evaluate how well career development theories meet criteria similar to those described earlier. Although research will receive comment, the primary focus of this textbook is the application of the theory by the counselor. Most of the theories included in this textbook meet, at least minimally, the four criteria listed earlier. Some theories are quite new and have not yet met these criteria, but they provide new ideas for counselors to consider. A broad approach to the application of theory to career development and to psychology in general has been taken by Dawis (2000, 2002). He argues that the PersonEnvironment Fit model can be used as a way of understanding the important aspects of psychological science. He believes that by studying the interaction between individuals and their environment, researchers will have an excellent model for studying many psychological issues, including career choice and development. Other writers have examined different approaches to the study of the Person-Environment Fit model that can be used depending on the variables being studied. The Retirement Transition and Adjustment framework is an application of the Person-Environment Fit model to individuals transitioning into retirement (Hesketh, Griffin, & Loh, 2011). Rottinghaus and Van Esbroeck (2011) examine several recent approaches to assessing the Person part of the Person-Environment Fit model when applying it to career development. In South Korea, the Person-Environment Fit model was used to assess performance of research and development professionals (Cha, Kim, & Kim, 2009). Almost all of the theories in this book, especially Chapters 2 through 6, can be viewed from this broad perspective as they focus on how individuals interact with their environment (for example, school, work, and families). However, the Person-Environment Fit model is too broad to be applied by counselors without more specifications; therefore, I discuss theories that are more detailed and specific about career development. Counselors’ Use of Career Development Theory When selecting theories of career development to apply, counselors must not only have confidence in the theory, as described in the previous section, but they also must make Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 6 Chapter 1: Introduction judgments about the advisability of using that theory with their clients. Furthermore, counselors need to consider their own view and style of counseling or psychotherapy. Their theory of counseling is likely to influence their selection of a theory of career development. The counselor also needs to select a theory of career development that is manageable and relatively easy to draw on in a counseling session. These three concepts are discussed in more detail in the following sections. Client Population Counselors work in a wide variety of settings and are likely to encounter a preponderance of one or another type of career problem. For example, elementary school and middle school counselors work with students who are at the beginning of the career information and selection process. High school and college counselors tend to help their clients with vocational choice, development of alternatives, and job placement. Although employment counselors deal with some of the same issues as high school and college counselors, they may encounter more issues related to satisfaction with and adjustment to a job. Some counselors work in business and industry with a limited number of professions, such as accounting and engineering. These counselors are likely to be involved in issues of work satisfaction, adjustment, and promotion. Vocational rehabilitation counselors and other counselors who work with clients who are physically and mentally challenged deal not only with the issues mentioned earlier, but they also must judge the applicability of the theory to the challenges of their clients. Moreover, retirement issues have become a greater concern of counselors in recent years. Choosing new, part-time, or volunteer work and scaling down the demands of current work are issues that retirement counselors often consider. Pastoral counselors, physicians, clinical psychologists, and psychiatrists work in settings where their clients may have career choice or adjustment issues that are related to other problems. Although career concerns may not be the presenting problem for the clients of these and other mental health workers, they may still be significant issues. Furthermore, the gender of the client can be an important variable in theory selection. Counselors can ask themselves if a theory is as appropriate for younger individuals as older individuals. Because career development theories differ in the age range that they choose to explain, the counselor must decide whether a particular career development theory is appropriate for the population with which he or she works. Theories of Counseling and Theories of Career Development Like counseling theories, many theories of career development are derived from theories of personality. Often, clearly distinguishing theories of counseling and of career development from theories of personality is difficult. In general, counseling and psychotherapy theories tend to be a subset of personality theories used to bring about a desired change in feeling, thinking, or behavior. Similarly, some theories of career development tend to be a subset of personality theories, which include how people relate to work and career issues. Therefore, because personality, counseling, and career development theory are highly interrelated, counselors who prefer a certain personality theory or theory of counseling are drawn naturally to a compatible career development theory. Because theories of personality and counseling form the core of a counselor’s training, they tend to influence the counselor’s selection of a theory of career development. Rarely does the selection of a theory of career development determine a counselor’s theory of personality or career counseling. For example, counselors attracted to Jungian theory may want to use the Myers–Briggs theory of types. Those counselors who use rational Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Chapter 1: Introduction 7 emotive behavior therapy, behavioral therapy, or cognitive therapy may find trait and factor theory, Holland’s theory of types, social learning, and cognitive information processing approaches to be particularly helpful. Many counselors are eclectic in their practical orientation; that is, they may draw from many theories. Although openness to the value of all theories of career development is helpful, it is important to remember the connection between career development theory and counseling theory. The theories presented in this book differ in terms of how similar they are to theories of personality, with a few being quite different. Chunking The concept of chunking is important for counselors to consider when selecting a theory of career development. Unlike computers, counselors have a limited ability to remember information. Psychologists have studied the limited capacity of both short- and long-term memory. In studying short-term memory, Miller (1956) suggested that people can process five to nine concepts, ideas, numbers, words, or sentences at a time. This processing is done by grouping—chunking— chunking concepts or ideas. Chunking is a concept used in teaching chunking— to help individuals improve their learning (Bodie, Powers, & Fitch-Hauser, 2006). For example, chunking has been used in early stages of Alzheimer’s disease (Huntley, Bor, Hampshire, Owen, & Howard, 2011). It has also been studied to help researchers understand how individuals develop expertise in different areas of learning (Cohen & Sekuler, 2010; Gobet, 2005; Mathy & Feldman, 2012; Pramling, 2011). Chunking has also been studied to show how children of different ages “chunk” differently (Gilchrist, Cowan, & Naveh-Benjamin, 2009). Research has extended knowledge about chunking by examining physiological aspects of learning. Studies of brain-wave frequency and the cerebral cortex suggest that working memory handles about seven items at a time (Glassman, 1999; Wickelgren, 1999). The concept of chunking has been extended to understand the thinking of novice and experienced psychotherapists, with experienced psychotherapists chunking more information than inexperienced psychotherapists (Ettelson, 2002). There is value in applying the concept of chunking to the use of career development theory in career counseling. Theories that have three or four basic constructs are likely to be learned relatively easily. Theories with up to eight or nine concepts may be remembered and used with some difficulty, depending on how often the concepts are reused in counseling. For example, John Holland has a theory that describes six basic types of people and work environments, which is explained in Chapter 5. Having relatively few types makes the process of remembering them easier for counselors than if there were more types. Theories with more than eight or nine concepts are likely to present a retention problem for the counselor when he or she is starting to put a theory into practice. One solution is to divide the theory into several chunks. It is important to do this because counselors need to learn information about a number of subjects, such as helping skills, career assessment, and occupational information, when assisting clients in career decision making. Counselor Skills The primary purpose of this book is to describe the usefulness of career development theory in counseling people with problems of career choice and adjustment. Information about theories can be combined with helping skills, which are often based on the early work of Carl Rogers (1951). Since the 1940s, career assessment has also been an integral part of career counseling. Furthermore, the use of occupational information as found in pamphlets, books, and computers is a necessary component of career counseling. These three areas of knowledge—helping skills, testing, and providing occupational information—are described in the following sections in terms of their relation to career development theory. Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 8 Chapter 1: Introduction Helping Skills Since the early 1980s, a number of books have described helping skills. The authors of these books appear to agree generally on the helping skills necessary for change in most counseling situations, including career counseling. Their work is based on the views of Carl Rogers (1958), who specifies four basic conditions necessary for counseling change: unconditional positive regard, genuineness, congruence, and empathy. Unconditional positive regard can be described as the acceptance of a person as being worthwhile and valuable, regardless of age, gender, race, or what he or she has done. Genuineness refers to sincerity—the need for the counselor to be honest with the client. Congruence requires that the counselor’s voice tone, body language, and verbal statements be consistent with one another. Finally, empathy refers to the ability to communicate to the client that the counselor understands the client’s concerns and feelings from the point of view of the client. These four basic conditions have become the cornerstone of research involving more than 260 studies. Truax and Carkhuff (1967) and Carkhuff and Berenson (1967) have done considerable research to further define and develop Rogers’s work. Recently, Chang, Scott, and Decker (2012), Egan (2010), and Ivey, Ivey, Zalaquett, and Quirk (2012) have provided methods for learning the basic or core helping skills. In addition, these authors have emphasized (to varying degrees) other important skills such as asking open-ended and nonbiased questions. In addition to discussing, paraphrasing, and reflecting feelings (basic empathic listening skills), these authors have explained important issues of confrontation and the need for concreteness and specificity. They also have provided texts for courses in basic counseling skills or helping relationships. A detailed explanation of these skills goes beyond the scope of this book. However, I describe the most common interventions and counseling techniques that are likely to be used in career counseling. These interventions are used in many of the case examples that are found throughout this book. Attending Skills A basic counseling skill is the counselor’s nonverbal presence in the counseling situation. In an attending position, counselors face their clients squarely, adopting an open posture (legs and arms not crossed), and leaning slightly toward the other person. Maintaining good eye contact, but not staring, is natural for people who are having a deep conversation. Counselors also maintain a relaxed, rather than tense or fidgety, presence. These skills are used primarily in North America when addressing clients. In other cultures, people may show attentiveness in other ways (Egan, 2010). Questions Questions are used to get specific information or to help clients describe or elaborate on certain subjects, feelings, or events. Closed-ended questions request specific information, and the answers are often of the “yes” or “no” variety. Open-ended questions encourage a broader response, asking the client to explain more fully the what, how, when, or where of a situation, feeling, or event. Both types of questions are illustrated in the following dialogue (CO = counselor; CL = client): CO: What grade did you get in English last year? [Closed-ended question] CL: I got an A. CO: Did you like the class? [Closed-ended question] CL: Yes, it was OK. CO: What did you learn about in class? [Open-ended question] Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Chapter 1: Introduction 9 CL: We studied modern writers, and I learned how to critique short stories. I was surprised that my ability to develop a good paragraph really changed during the course. My teacher was very helpful and complimented me about my progress. CO: How does that affect your thoughts about college? [Open-ended question] CL: It really gets me thinking. I hadn’t known that I could write that well. The short reviews we did in class really made me more comfortable with writing and made me think, ‘Hey, I can do more of this.’ I could even do it in college. As shown here, open-ended questions usually elicit a much broader explanation from the client than do closed-ended questions. Questions, in general, and especially closedended questions, tend to place the burden of the interview on the counselor. In a sense, if questions are used frequently, clients develop an expectation that if they answer the questions, the counselor will provide a solution to the problem. In this book, questions are used sparingly in the case examples. Rather, the counselors in the examples are more apt to use reflections of client statements. Statements and Reflections By rephrasing what the client has said, counselors focus on the cognitive or emotional content of a client’s statement. When a client makes a statement, restating it directs attention to the situation, the person, or the general idea. The client thus is encouraged to add to or to develop his or her statement. Restatements may reflect not only the words of the client but also the voice tone, gestures, and facial expressions. Because information and affect are attached to career issues, making content and feeling reflections is often helpful. Feeling reflections contain (or imply) an emotional word or phrase. Content reflections focus on the information that the client provides. CL: My work is so boring. All I do is wait on one customer after another. I ring up the sale. Give the customer the receipt. Ring up the sale. Give the customer the receipt. And on and on. Content Reflection: Each day you perform the same actions over and over again. Feeling Reflection: Waiting on customers is really boring you and annoying you. You can’t wait till the day is over. In this situation, the content reflection tells only a small part of the story. The feeling reflection provides a fuller expression of the client’s experience. In the cases in this book, when feeling or emotional content is provided in the client’s statement, the counselor’s response usually reflects the affective component. Content reflections tend to be used mainly when the counselor perceives little affect. Continuation Responses Often, in career counseling (and other counseling), it can be helpful to request more information. A nonverbal gesture such as nodding or using a hand movement invites a client to continue. Verbal comments include “Tell me more,” “Can you say more about that?” “Go on,” “Hmm,” “And then?” and “And what happened then?” The following brief example attempts to clarify the usefulness of continuation responses. CO: What are your plans for next year? [Open-ended question] CL: I think that I’m going to work in the department store’s hardware department. I’ve done it for three years, and it’s easy to continue. Besides, I really think I need to get more money before I can continue college. Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 10 Chapter 1: Introduction CO: Say more about that, if you would. [Continuation response] CL: It’s easy to stay in the hardware department. I know it really well, but I’m not getting very far with it. Sometimes I think I should go back to school anyway, even though I don’t have the money, and just hope things will work out. CO: Hmm. Tell me more. [Continuation response] CL: I don’t think that I have the money, but maybe I can get my father to take out a loan. He really doesn’t want to, but if I’m really persuasive, maybe he can help me. It sure would be better than having to be back in that old job. When discussing career issues, continuation techniques bring out more information than the client may volunteer at first. The career development theories in this book focus on the client as an important informational resource about himself or herself. Thus, continuation responses are frequently seen in the examples. Giving Information, Not Opinion Often, counselors give clients information about educational or occupational opportunities. It is important that this information be accurate, up to date, and clear. Biased information can be destructive and confusing to the client. Opinions that are given by the counselor represent only one person’s view. However, because clients are likely to view counselors as experts, the counselors’ opinions may be perceived as being information or the truth. Counselors who give opinions risk discouraging or encouraging a client inappropriately. CL: Now, after I’ve completed my first year of college, I have a C average. I’m not sure whether I should revise my plans to go to medical school. Opinion 1: I think that you should revise your plans. Students with a C average have little chance of getting into medical school. Opinion 2: Things are likely to get better. You still have a chance to pull your grades up and probably get into medical school. Question about Information: What do you think about your chances of getting into medical school? [The counselor wants to know what the basis of the client’s information is.] CL: I realize that most students have to have an A-minus average to go to medical school, but I think I can raise my grades. Information: You may find it helpful to go to the premed adviser to get more information about how students have done here in getting into medical school. [The counselor does not have the specific information that the client needs on hand but directs the client to an appropriate source.] Although individuals with a C average in their freshman year in college may find it difficult to be admitted to medical school, there are some exceptions. The counselor assumes a powerful role if she or he gives Opinions 1 or 2. The theories that are discussed in this book assume that the client, rather than the counselor, is the decision maker; thus, the counselor should provide guidance for career decision making and accurate information, rather than opinions. Reinforcement Verbal reinforcement of the client’s behavior is a behavioral technique often used in career counseling. This technique is particularly featured in Chapter 13, Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Chapter 1: Introduction 11 which describes social learning theory. In verbal reinforcement, the client’s behavior is reinforced, rather than the client. CL: I’ve been wanting to tell my boss that he’s been giving me too many assignments lately. I’ve been afraid to do so, and I’ve been really anxious. I’m afraid that he will be really mad at me and tell me I’ll have to leave my job. This is something I don’t want to do. It’s a great job otherwise. This has bugged me so much that I’ve been losing sleep over it, and I’m really starting to feel depressed. Finally, I got up the courage and talked to my boss and told him exactly what it was that was bothering me. He was understanding, and I was really relieved. CO: That’s terrific. You did something that you have wanted to do for quite a while. You explained the problem and the difficulties, and you got satisfaction. That’s wonderful. If the client had said, “I told my boss all these things, and he got really angry,” the counselor might have replied, “You did what you wanted to do. You explained the problem to him specifically and told him how it was bothering you. It’s great that you were able to do so. It’s too bad that he didn’t respond the way you wanted him to.” In both cases, the counselor is reinforcing the client’s behavior. A common behavior that counselors reinforce is information seeking. For example, when a client has read about or talked to people in a particular profession, counselors may say, “That’s terrific that you spent so much time in finding out about that. Great!” Family Background Exploration Chapter 12, which focuses on relational approaches to career development, discusses ways of exploring the role of the family (and others) in career decision making. For example, the genogram is a method of diagramming family relationships and is a tool for discussing how clients’ career plans relate to those of their families. Assessment Interpretation An important career counseling intervention is interpretation of tests and inventories. Discussed particularly in the theories that are explained in Part One, test and inventory interpretation provides information about the client to the client. In interpreting tests or inventories for clients, counselors use many of the skills that have been described in this chapter. Throughout the book, examples of assessment interpretation are given for interest, ability, value, and personality tests and inventories. Some of the specific knowledge that is needed to make accurate assessment interpretations is discussed briefly in the following section. Assessment interpretation, like many of the techniques described in this textbook, is helpful in career counseling. Other techniques, such as confrontation, self-disclosure, and counselor interpretations, can also be helpful and are described in some of the books cited earlier. Most career development theories do not specify counseling techniques. Rather, they provide a way of comprehending and organizing the information that is contained in counseling sessions. The tools that produce this information are the content and feeling reflections, open-ended questions, and other techniques mentioned previously. Career development theory, which may indirectly (and sometimes directly) affect the technique used, aids the counselor in understanding the client. The counselors using trait and factor theory likely will ask more questions and will use fewer feeling reflections than those who apply Super’s life-span theory. However, this does not have to be the case. This book focuses on making use of career development theory in conceptualizing career counseling when assisting a client. Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 12 Chapter 1: Introduction Assessment Instruments Two types of assessment instruments are discussed in this textbook: tests and inventories. The term test refers generally to ability and achievement tests on which there are correct answers and on which individuals attempt to perform as well as possible (“maximum performance”). The term inventory refers to instruments that solicit a preference or viewpoint from the client and have no “right” or “wrong” answers. Common inventories used in counseling measure interests, values, and personality. Career development theories differ in the weight they give to the importance of tests and inventories in the career development process. Tests and inventories have been in wide use for career counseling since the 1930s and 1940s. Extensive test development took place during World War II because of the need to assign men and women to the military tasks for which they were best suited. Although originally designed for the selection of employees, tests and inventories have been particularly useful in counseling. To be competent in test or inventory selection, counselors need to understand measurement concepts such as normative information, reliability, and validity. Because these concepts are so important in understanding assessment, they are described briefly in the following sections. However, these descriptions do not take the place of a course or text on psychological measurement. Norms It is useful to compare a client’s score on a test or inventory with a normative sample (norms) that is used in developing a standard for scoring (Neukrug & Fawcett, 2010). Such a sample should be normal scores—that is, those that are typical of a population. Sometimes, norms are based on a general population; at other times, they are based on specific groups, such as high school students, accountants, or former drug abusers. In some cases, norms are listed separately for male and female individuals; in other cases, they are combined. Norms are also sometimes separated for people of different genders or ages. Good norms are helpful in providing counselors with a full understanding of the basis of the comparisons that they will make. For example, a counselor usually would not want to compare a 12th-grade client’s biology achievement score with the scores of 9thgrade students. Although national norms are used frequently, it is sometimes helpful to have local norms to compare students within a school system or a state. Norms typically are presented in percentile scores, which are easy to understand because counselors can see the percentage of individuals with results above or below a particular score. Often, standard scores are used because, unlike percentile scores, they provide for a uniform difference between each score. Thus, the difference between 50 and 55 is the same as the difference between 70 and 75, which is not true of percentages. Counselors who want to use the tests or inventories that are described in this book should read a test manual to learn about norms and to decide, where appropriate, which norms to use. Reliability To be used, a test or inventory must be dependable and consistent. If a student takes a test or inventory one time, the score that he or she receives a second time should be similar. A test or inventory with perfect reliability means that everyone’s scores were in the same relative position on every additional administration of the instrument. There are two major sources of unreliability: variation in human performance and variation in the technical aspects of measurement. For example, a measurement of math ability should be more stable than a measure of depression, which varies according to mood. Errors may be caused by the testing conditions, such as lighting, heat or cold, and poor instructions. On many instruments, the reliability coefficients usually exceed .80, but an acceptable reliability may be less in some situations. Reliability may be measured by administering the same instrument on two different occasions or administering two different forms of the same test on different occasions. Split-half reliability is obtained by dividing a single test or inventory into two comparable halves and then comparing the results Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Chapter 1: Introduction 13 from the two halves. Yet another measure is interitem consistency, which is arrived at by examining the average intercorrelations among the items on an assessment instrument. Knowledge of the reliability of an instrument is important in deciding whether to use it with clients. Validity Does a test or inventory measure what it is supposed to measure? Does a measure of English skills really measure skills in English? How well a test or inventory measures what is requested of it is referred to as validity (Neukrug & Fawcett, 2010). For a test or inventory to be valid, it must first be reliable; that is, it must be a consistent measure of a trait or other variable. Different types of scales require different types of validity. Content validity refers to the actual content of the items. The items should reflect the area (for example, knowledge of algebra) that the instrument is attempting to measure. Concurrent validity is a measure against a specific criterion. For example, scores on a test of clerical ability can be compared with the performance of secretaries who have established clerical abilities. Predictive validity also refers to a criterion, but one that applies to the future. For example, a test of clerical aptitude should predict how well applicants for secretarial positions will perform on clerical aspects of their positions in a year from that date. Construct validity is more complex, referring to whether the scales make psychological sense and are related to the variables to which they should be related. A depression inventory should be related to other inventories of depression or psychiatric ratings of depressed people on specific symptoms of depression. Test and inventory manuals provide the counselor with information on these types of validity. An assessment instrument that is not valid has little value for the counselor. This book mentions many tests and inventories, and all have at least moderate validity in some, but not all, of the four types of validity described here. Assessment instruments play two major roles in career development theory. First, tests and inventories can be used to develop and verify a theory. Second, tests and inventories can provide the counselor with information that can then be used as a means of understanding the client from the point of view of career development theory. For example, John Holland developed and used the Self-Directed Search and the Vocational Preference Inventory as a way to test the constructs of his theory. Another example is Super’s career development theory. Donald Super developed the Values Scale and the Career Development Inventory, among many other inventories. Other investigators have developed career maturity scales, all of which can be used to research various aspects of Super’s theory. Counselors can use these instruments to develop knowledge about the client that they can then relate directly to a theoretical context. For the counselor, tests and inventories have three major features: selection, administration, and interpretation. Norms, reliability, and validity are important considerations in deciding which tests or inventories to select. Test and inventory selection may also be based on theoretical concepts that are relevant to the clients, which are discussed further in this textbook. Administration is described in detail in each test manual, and different considerations apply to individual and group test-taking procedures. Interpreting a test or inventory requires knowledge of both the client and the assessment instrument. This textbook provides examples of test and inventory interpretation to show how a counselor may discuss portions of results with a client. Providing Occupational Information Career counseling differs from other types of counseling in its reliance on occupational and educational information. More than 30 years ago, Hoppock (1976) described in detail the information that counselors should know about occupations and the importance of occupational information in counseling. Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 14 Chapter 1: Introduction His advice about what counselors should know about occupational information is still valuable now: • • • • • Know where their clients get their first jobs or where their clients go to work after they have completed counseling. Determine the principal employment opportunities in their local area. The geographic area within which college students search for jobs is likely to be much larger than for high school students, who are more likely to look for work close to home. Learn about occupations that are being considered by their clients, so they can provide information appropriate for their clients. Learn about at least one occupation that is central to each of three of the most important and largest local employers. This will entail visiting and developing contacts with these employers. Know how to obtain information and to evaluate it for accuracy and usefulness. Essentially, counselors need to know certain types of information and specific sources of career information. The types of information that are perhaps most important include descriptions of the occupation, working conditions, qualifications required by the job duties, beginning and average salaries, employment outlook, education (courses, majors, or degrees) required by the job, and where one can get more information about the occupation. Information related to these topics is provided in publications such as the Occupational Outlook Handbook (2012) and the Encyclopedia of Careers and Vocational Guidance (Ferguson, 2011), which also have online versions. These publications offer occupational information about a broad and representative sample of occupations. In addition, pamphlets produced by publishers specializing in occupational information and by trade organizations describe hundreds of available occupations. Textbooks and courses on occupational information deal fully with these topics and are helpful for effective career counseling. Furthermore, a number of computerized guidance products such as DISCOVER (ACT, 2007) and SIGI3 (VALPAR, 2007) provide occupational information together with career assessment. Career development theories vary widely in the attention that they direct to occupational information. For example, Holland’s theory provides a system for classifying all occupational information through the use of six categories. Holland provides an identifiable code for each occupation that has clear meaning according to his theory. In contrast, the Myers–Briggs theoretical formulation focuses almost entirely on the person’s type and not on occupational information. Super and colleagues (Starishevsky & Matlin, 1963) used the term occtalk to describe occupational information that clients learn; they used the term psychtalk to delineate the views that clients have of themselves. For instance, the statement “It is helpful for musicians to know a number of instruments” is an example of occtalk, whereas “I enjoy learning music theory” is an example of psychtalk. This example illustrates how theorists have built a bridge between occupational information and information about the client from a counseling interview. Although occupational information is described in this chapter, it is explained in detail in Chapter 2 as a means of classifying careers and in Chapter 3 as a way of learning information about the labor market. Classifying occupations and learning about the labor market are two important aspects of occupational information. How Career Development Theory Relates to Career Counseling Just as counseling theories provide a framework for the conceptualization of client problems, career development theory provides a framework for helping with a client’s career problems. Career development theory can be considered the part of the career counseling process that offers a means of conceptualizing career concerns. Basic helping skills are Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Chapter 1: Introduction 15 the essential ingredients in bringing about change and progress in career issues. Assessment instruments, as well as occupational information, are additional pieces of information that aid in the conceptualization process. Counseling skills are used to provide feedback about tests and inventories or to give information about occupations. Overall, career development theory can give counselors an idea of how they are going to help their clients and what the eventual outcome of counseling may be. The goal directedness that career development theory can provide gives counselors, particularly beginning counselors, a sense of confidence. Goals of Career Counseling The two most common goals of career counseling are the selection of an occupation and the adjustment to an occupation. As shown in Chapters 7 and 8, career selection usually takes place any time after the age of 14 years, but most commonly during high school, college, or both. When helping a client in the process of choosing occupations, counselors often use information about the client’s satisfaction with any previous work. When adults are trying to find more satisfaction in an occupation, they often question their current career choice and review their reasons for seeking that occupation. This may happen at any time during a person’s working life. Some theorists, such as Dawis and Lofquist (1984), focus on vocational adjustment, as well as vocational selection. Implicit in all career development theories is the notion that the client, rather than the counselor, makes the final choice. Goals, whether explicit or implicit, are essential to counseling. Goals serve as a guide for the work that is done in the counseling session. An example of making goals explicit is when the counselor and the client agree that the purpose of counseling is to select from appropriate career alternatives. An example of making goals implicit is when the counselor assumes that the client wants to select appropriate career alternatives. Whether the goals are explicit or implicit, the use of career development theories can make goals clear and specific for the counselor. For each theory in this book, methods of conceptualizing theoretical constructs in terms of counseling goals are described to the extent that the theory permits. A counselor using theoretical constructs in conceptualizing client goals should have a sense of how well the counseling is progressing, what (in general) should happen next in the counseling, and what needs to take place for the counseling to be completed. These goals and their implementation may not be identical for all people. Ethical standards help counselors meet their clients’ goals in constructive and appropriate ways. Goals, Career Development Theory, and Ethics To assist clients in issues related to career development, counselors must behave ethically. Ethics, at the most basic level, are standards of behavior developed by a group of people to which members of that group should adhere. They often overlap with laws, which are standards developed and enforced by governmental bodies. Professional and governmental organizations have developed codes of ethics that counselors and mental health practitioners must follow, regardless of whether they are members of the organization, to guide them in ethically meeting their clients’ goals. There are ethical codes for psychiatrists, other physicians, nurses, clergy, social workers, psychologists, mental health counselors, marriage counselors, career counselors, and others. All of these codes of ethics are similar in intent and content. Differences tend to be quite minor and reflect the goals of the particular profession. Three of the most relevant sets of ethical standards for this textbook are those developed by the American Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 16 Chapter 1: Introduction Psychological Association (APA), the American Counseling Association (ACA), and the National Career Development Association (NCDA). Ethical standards of the NCDA (2007) are especially relevant to the focus of this textbook. They are discussed later in this section. Ethical principles provide an overview of ethical standards and a framework for understanding ethical standards. Five moral standards are the foundation for the ethical principles of most codes of ethics in the helping profession…

 

As we begin this session, I would like to take this opportunity to clarify my expectations for this course:

Please note that GCU Online weeks run from Thursday (Day 1) through Wednesday (Day 7).

 

Course Room Etiquette:

• It is my expectation that all learners will respect the thoughts and ideas presented in the discussions.
• All postings should be presented in a respectful, professional manner. Remember – different points of view add richness and depth to the course!

 

Office Hours:

• My office hours vary so feel free to shoot me an email at [email protected] or my office phone is 602.639.6517 and I will get back to you within one business day or as soon as possible.
• Phone appointments can be scheduled as well. Send me an email and the best time to call you, along with your phone number to make an appointment.
• I welcome all inquiries and questions as we spend this term together. My preference is that everyone utilizes the Questions to Instructor forum. In the event your question is of a personal nature, please feel free to post in the Individual Questions for Instructor forumI will respond to all posts or emails within 24 or sooner.

 

Late Policy and Grading Policy

Discussion questions:

• I do not mark off for late DQ’s.
• I would rather you take the time to read the materials and respond to the DQ’s in a scholarly way, demonstrating your understanding of the materials.
• I will not accept any DQ submissions after day 7, 11:59 PM (AZ Time) of the week.
• Individual written assignments – due by 11:59 PM AZ Time Zone on the due dates indicated for each class deliverable.

Assignments:

• Assignments turned in after their specified due dates are subject to a late penalty of -10%, each day late, of the available credit. Please refer to the student academic handbook and GCU policy.
• Any activity or assignment submitted after the due date will be subject to GCU’s late policy
• Extenuating circumstances may justify exceptions, which are at my sole discretion. If an extenuating circumstance should arise, please contact me privately as soon as possible.
• No assignments can be accepted for grading after midnight on the final day of class.
• All assignments will be graded in accordance with the Assignment Grading Rubrics

Participation

• Participation in each week’s Discussion Board forum accounts for a large percentage of your final grade in this course.
• Please review the Course Syllabus for a comprehensive overview of course deliverables and the value associated with each.
• It is my expectation that each of you will substantially contribute to the course discussion forums and respond to the posts of at least three other learners.
• A substantive post should be at least 200 words. Responses such as “great posts” or “I agree” do notmeet the active engagement expectation.
• Please feel free to draw on personal examples as you develop your responses to the Discussion Questions but you do need to demonstrate your understanding of the materials.
• I do expect outside sources as well as class materials to formulate your post.
• APA format is not necessary for DQ responses, but I do expect a proper citation for references.
• Please use peer-related journals found through the GCU library and/or class materials to formulate your answers. Do not try to “Google” DQ’s as I am looking for class materials and examples from the weekly materials.
• I will not accept responses that are from Wikipedia, Business com, or other popular business websites. You will not receive credit for generic web searches – this does not demonstrate graduate-level research.
• Stay away from the use of personal pronouns when writing.As a graduate student, you are expected to write based on research and gathering of facts. Demonstrating your understanding of the materials is what you will be graded on. You will be marked down for lack of evidence to support your ideas.

Plagiarism

• Plagiarism is the act of claiming credit for another’s work, accomplishments, or ideas without appropriate acknowledgment of the source of the information by including in-text citations and references.
• This course requires the utilization of APA format for all course deliverables as noted in the course syllabus.
• Whether this happens deliberately or inadvertently, whenever plagiarism has occurred, you have committed a Code of Conduct violation.
• Please review your LopesWrite report prior to final submission.
• Every act of plagiarism, no matter the severity, must be reported to the GCU administration (this includes your DQ’s, posts to your peers, and your papers).

Plagiarism includes:

• Representing the ideas, expressions, or materials of another without due credit.
• Paraphrasing or condensing ideas from another person’s work without proper citation and referencing.
• Failing to document direct quotations without proper citation and referencing.
• Depending upon the amount, severity, and frequency of the plagiarism that is committed, students may receive in-class penalties that range from coaching (for a minor omission), -20% grade penalties for resubmission, or zero credit for a specific assignment. University-level penalties may also occur, including suspension or even expulsion from the University.
• If you are at all uncertain about what constitutes plagiarism, you should review the resources available in the Student Success Center. Also, please review the University’s policies about plagiarism which are covered in more detail in the GCU Catalog and the Student Handbook.
• We will be utilizing the GCU APA Style Guide 7th edition located in the Student Success Center > The Writing Center for all course deliverables.

LopesWrite

• All course assignments must be uploaded to the specific Module Assignment Drop Box, and also submitted to LopesWrite every week.
• Please ensure that your assignment is uploaded to both locations under the Assignments DropBox. Detailed instructions for using LopesWrite are located in the Student Success Center.

Assignment Submissions

• Please note that Microsoft Office is the software requirement at GCU.
• I can open Word files or any file that is saved with a .rtf (Rich Text Format) extension. I am unable to open .wps files.
• If you are using a “.wps” word processor, please save your files using the .rtf extension that is available from the drop-down box before uploading your files to the Assignment Drop Box.

Grade of Incomplete

• The final grade of Incomplete is granted at the discretion of the instructor; however, students must meet certain specific criteria before this grade accommodation is even possible to consider.
• The grade of Incomplete is reserved for times when students experience a serious extenuating circumstance or a crisis during the last week of class which prevents the completion of course requirements before the close of the grading period. Students also must pass the course at the time the request is made.
• Please contact me personally if you are having difficulties in meeting course requirements or class deadlines during our time together. In addition, if you are experiencing personal challenges or difficulties, it is best to contact the Academic Counselor so that you can discuss the options that might be available to you, as well as each option’s academic and financial repercussions.

Grade Disputes

• If you have any questions about a grade you have earned on an individual assignment or activity, please get in touch with mepersonally for further clarification.
• While I have made every attempt to grade you fairly, on occasion a misunderstanding may occur, so please allow me the opportunity to learn your perspective if you believe this has occurred. Together, we should be able to resolve grading issues on individual assignments.
• However, after we have discussed individual assignments’ point scores, if you still believe that the final grade you have earned at the end of the course is not commensurate with the quality of work you produced for this class, there is a formal Grade Grievance procedurewhich is outlined in the GCU Catalog and Student Handbook.

A Sample Answer For the Assignment: Vocational Psych- Chart

Title: Vocational Psych- Chart