Sample Answer for NURS 6630 Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment Included After Question
Week 4: Therapy for Patients With Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
Mood disorders can impact every facet of a human being’s life, making the most basic activities difficult for patients and their families. This was the case for 13-year-old Jeanette, who was struggling at home and at school. For more than 8 years, Jeanette suffered from temper tantrums, impulsiveness, inappropriate behavior, difficulty in judgment, and sleep issues.
As a PNP working with pediatric patients, you must be able to assess whether these symptoms are caused by psychological, social, or underlying growth and development issues. You must then be able recommend appropriate therapies.
This week, as you examine antidepressant therapies, you explore the assessment and treatment of three populations: pediatrics, adults, and geriatrics. The focus of your assessment tool, a decision tree, will specifically center on one of the most vulnerable populations, pediatrics. Please remember, you must also consider the ethical and legal implications of these therapies. You will also complete a Quiz on the concepts addressed throughout this module.
Learning Objectives
Students will:
- Assess patient factors and history to develop personalized plans of antidepressant therapy across the lifespan
- Analyze factors that influence pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic processes in pediatric, adult, and geriatric patients requiring antidepressant therapy
- Synthesize knowledge of providing care to pediatric, adult, and geriatric patients presenting for antidepressant therapy
- Analyze ethical and legal implications related to prescribing antidepressant therapy to patients across the lifespan
Learning Resources
Required Readings (click to expand/reduce)
Baek, J. H., Nierenberg, A. A., & Fava, M. (2016). Pharmacological approaches to treatment-resistant depression. In T. A. Stern, M. Favo, T. E. Wilens, & J. F. Rosenbaum. (Eds.), Massachusetts General Hospital psychopharmacology and neurotherapeutics (pp. 44–47). Elsevier.
Fava, M., & Papakostas, G. I. (2016). Antidepressants. In T. A. Stern, M. Favo, T. E. Wilens, & J. F. Rosenbaum. (Eds.), Massachusetts General Hospital psychopharmacology and neurotherapeutics (pp. 27–43). Elsevier.







Medication Resources (click to expand/reduce)
IBM Corporation. (2020). IBM Micromedex.
Note: To access the following medications, use the IBM Micromedex resource. Type the name of each medication in the keyword search bar. Be sure to read all sections on the left navigation bar related to each medication’s result page, as this information will be helpful for your review in preparation for your Assignments.
Review the following medications:
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Required Media (click to expand/reduce)
Case Study: An African American Child Suffering from Depression
Note: This case study will serve as the foundation for this week’s Assignment.
Optional Resources (click to expand/reduce)


iii–v. https://doi.org/10.2989/17280583.2014.938497
When pediatric patients present with mood disorders, the process of assessing, diagnosing, and treating them can be quite complex. Children not only present with different signs and symptoms than adult patients with the same disorders, they also metabolize medications much differently. Yet, there may be times when the same psychopharmacologic treatments may be used in both pediatric and adult cases with major depressive disorders. As a result, psychiatric nurse practitioners must exercise caution when prescribing psychotropic medications to these patients. For this Assignment, as you examine the patient case study in this week’s Learning Resources, consider how you might assess and treat pediatric patients presenting with mood disorders.
To prepare for this Assignment:
- Review this week’s Learning Resources, including the Medication Resources indicated for this week.
- Reflect on the psychopharmacologic treatments you might recommend for the assessment and treatment of pediatric patients requiring antidepressant therapy.
The Assignment: 5 pages
Examine Case Study: An African American Child Suffering From Depression. You will be asked to make three decisions concerning the medication to prescribe to this patient. Be sure to consider factors that might impact the patient’s pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic processes.
At each decision point, you should evaluate all options before selecting your decision and moving throughout the exercise. Before you make your decision, make sure that you have researched each option and that you evaluate the decision that you will select. Be sure to research each option using the primary literature.
Introduction to the case (1 page)
- Briefly explain and summarize the case for this Assignment. Be sure to include the specific patient factors that may impact your decision making when prescribing medication for this patient.
Decision #1 (1 page)
- Which decision did you select?
- Why did you select this decision? Be specific and support your response with clinically relevant and patient-specific resources, including the primary literature.
- Why did you not select the other two options provided in the exercise? Be specific and support your response with clinically relevant and patient-specific resources, including the primary literature.
- What were you hoping to achieve by making this decision? Support your response with evidence and references to the Learning Resources (including the primary literature).
- Explain how ethical considerations may impact your treatment plan and communication with patients. Be specific and provide examples.
Decision #2 (1 page)
- Why did you select this decision? Be specific and support your response with clinically relevant and patient-specific resources, including the primary literature.
- Why did you not select the other two options provided in the exercise? Be specific and support your response with clinically relevant and patient-specific resources, including the primary literature.
- What were you hoping to achieve by making this decision? Support your response with evidence and references to the Learning Resources (including the primary literature).
- Explain how ethical considerations may impact your treatment plan and communication with patients. Be specific and provide examples.
Decision #3 (1 page)
- Why did you select this decision? Be specific and support your response with clinically relevant and patient-specific resources, including the primary literature.
- Why did you not select the other two options provided in the exercise? Be specific and support your response with clinically relevant and patient-specific resources, including the primary literature.
- What were you hoping to achieve by making this decision? Support your response with evidence and references to the Learning Resources (including the primary literature).
- Explain how ethical considerations may impact your treatment plan and communication with patients. Be specific and provide examples.
Conclusion (1 page)
Summarize your recommendations on the treatment options you selected for this patient. Be sure to justify your recommendations and support your response with clinically relevant and patient-specific resources, including the primary literature.
Note: Support your rationale with a minimum of five academic resources. While you may use the course text to support your rationale, it will not count toward the resource requirement. You should be utilizing the primary and secondary literature.
By Day 7
Submit your Assignment.
Submission and Grading Information
To submit your completed Assignment for review and grading, do the following:
- Please save your Assignment using the naming convention “WK4Assgn+last name+first initial.(extension)” as the name.
- Click the Week 4 Assignment Rubric to review the Grading Criteria for the Assignment.
- Click the Week 4 Assignment link. You will also be able to “View Rubric” for grading criteria from this area.
- Next, from the Attach File area, click on the Browse My Computer button. Find the document you saved as “WK4Assgn+last name+first initial.(extension)” and click Open.
- If applicable: From the Plagiarism Tools area, click the checkbox for I agree to submit my paper(s) to the Global Reference Database.
- Click on the Submit button to complete your submission.
Grading Criteria
To access your rubric:
Week 4 Assignment Rubric
Check Your Assignment Draft for Authenticity
To check your Assignment draft for authenticity:
Submit your Week 4 Assignment draft and review the originality report.
Submit Your Assignment by Day 7 of Week 4
To participate in this Assignment:
Week 4 Assignment
What’s Coming Up in Week 5?
Photo Credit: [BrianAJackson]/[iStock / Getty Images Plus]/Getty Images
Next week, you will build on your assessment and treatment skills as you examine patients presenting with bipolar disorders.
Next Week
Rubric Detail
Select Grid View or List View to change the rubric’s layout.
Name: NURS_6630_Week4_Assignment_Rubric
[Control]
| Excellent
Point range: 90–100 |
Good
Point range: 80–89 |
Fair
Point range: 70–79 |
Poor
Point range: 0–69 |
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| Introduction to the case (1 page)
Briefly explain and summarize the case for this Assignment. Be sure to include the specific patient factors that may impact your decision making when prescribing medication for this patient. |
9 (9%) - 10 (10%)
The response accurately, clearly, and fully summarizes in detail the case for the Assignment. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail the specific patient factors that impact decision making when prescribing medication for this patient. |
8 (8%) - 8 (8%)
The response accurately summarizes the case for the Assignment. The response accurately explains the specific patient factors that impact decision making with prescribing medication for this patient. |
7 (7%) - 7 (7%)
The response inaccurately or vaguely summarizes the case for the Assignment. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains the specific patient factors that impact decision making with prescribing medication for this patient. |
0 (0%) - 6 (6%)
The response inaccurately and vaguely summarizes the case for the Assignment, or is missing. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains the specific patient factors that impact decision making with prescribing medication for this patient. |
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| Decision #1 (1–2 pages)
• Which decision did you select? |
18 (18%) - 20 (20%)
The response accurately and clearly explains in detail the decision selected. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail why the decision was selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that fully support the decision selected. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail why the other two responses were not selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that fully support the response. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail the outcome the student was hoping to achieve with the selected decision, with specific clinically relevant resources that fully support the response. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail how ethical considerations impact the treatment plan and communication with patients. Examples provided fully support the decisions and responses provided. |
16 (16%) - 17 (17%)
The response accurately explains the decision selected. The response explains why the decision was selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that support the decision selected. The response accurately explains why the other two responses were not selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that support the response. The response accurately explains the outcome the student was hoping to achieve with the selected decision, with specific clinically relevant resources that support the response. The response accurately explains how ethical considerations impact the treatment plan and communication with patients. Examples provided support the decisions and responses provided. |
14 (14%) - 15 (15%)
The response inaccurately or vaguely explains the decision selected. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains why the decision was selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that inaccurately or vaguely support the decision selected. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains why the other two responses were not selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that inaccurately or vaguely support the response. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains the outcome the student was hoping to achieve with the selected decision, with specific clinically relevant resources that inaccurately or vaguely support the response. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains how ethical considerations impact the treatment plan and communication with patients. Examples provided may support the decisions and responses provided. |
0 (0%) - 13 (13%)
The response inaccurately and vaguely explains the decision selected. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains why the decision was selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that do not support the decision selected, or is missing. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains why the other two responses were not selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that do not support the decision selected, or is missing. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains the outcome the student was hoping to achieve with the selected decision, with specific clinically relevant resources that do not support the response, or is missing. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains how ethical considerations impact the treatment plan and communication with patients, or is missing. Examples provided do not support the decisions and responses provided, or is missing. |
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| Decision #2 (1–2 pages)
• Which decision did you select? |
18 (18%) - 20 (20%)
The response accurately and clearly explains in detail the decision selected. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail why the decision was selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that fully support the decision selected. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail why the other two responses were not selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that fully support the response. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail the outcome the student was hoping to achieve with the selected decision, with specific clinically relevant resources that fully support the response. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail how ethical considerations impact the treatment plan and communication with patients. Examples provided fully support the decisions and responses provided. |
16 (16%) - 17 (17%)
The response accurately explains the decision selected. The response explains why the decision was selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that support the decision selected. The response accurately explains why the other two responses were not selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that support the response. The response accurately explains the outcome the student was hoping to achieve with the selected decision, with specific clinically relevant resources that support the response. The response accurately explains how ethical considerations impact the treatment plan and communication with patients. Examples provided support the decisions and responses provided. |
14 (14%) - 15 (15%)
The response inaccurately or vaguely explains the decision selected. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains why the decision was selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that inaccurately or vaguely support the decision selected. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains why the other two responses were not selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that inaccurately or vaguely support the response. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains the outcome the student was hoping to achieve with the selected decision, with specific clinically relevant resources that inaccurately or vaguely support the response. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains how ethical considerations impact the treatment plan and communication with patients. Examples provided may support the decisions and responses provided. |
0 (0%) - 13 (13%)
The response inaccurately and vaguely explains in detail the decision selected. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains why the decision was selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that do not support the decision selected, or is missing. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains why the other two responses were not selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that do not support the decision selected, or is missing. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains the outcome the student was hoping to achieve with the selected decision, with specific clinically relevant resources that do not support the response, or is missing. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains how ethical considerations impact the treatment plan and communication with patients, or is missing. Examples provided do not support the decisions and responses provided, or is missing. |
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| Decision #3 (1–2 pages)
• Which decision did you select? |
18 (18%) - 20 (20%)
The response accurately and clearly explains in detail the decision selected. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail why the decision was selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that fully support the decision selected. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail why the other two responses were not selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that fully support the response. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail the outcome the student was hoping to achieve with the selected decision, with specific clinically relevant resources that fully support the response. The response accurately and clearly explains in detail how ethical considerations impact the treatment plan and communication with patients. Examples provided fully support the decisions and responses provided. |
16 (16%) - 17 (17%)
The response accurately explains the decision selected. The response explains why the decision was selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that support the decision selected. The response accurately explains why the other two responses were not selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that support the response. The response accurately explains the outcome the student was hoping to achieve with the selected decision, with specific clinically relevant resources that support the response. The response accurately explains how ethical considerations impact the treatment plan and communication with patients. Examples provided support the decisions and responses provided. |
14 (14%) - 15 (15%)
The response inaccurately or vaguely explains the decision selected. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains why the decision was selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that inaccurately or vaguely support the decision selected. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains why the other two responses were not selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that inaccurately or vaguely support the response. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains the outcome the student was hoping to achieve with the selected decision, with specific clinically relevant resources that inaccurately or vaguely support the response. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains how ethical considerations impact the treatment plan and communication with patients. Examples provided may support the decisions and responses provided. |
0 (0%) - 13 (13%)
The response inaccurately and vaguely explains in detail the decision selected. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains why the decision was selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that do not support the decision selected, or is missing. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains why the other two responses were not selected, with specific clinically relevant resources that do not support the decision selected, or is missing. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains the outcome the student was hoping to achieve with the selected decision, with specific clinically relevant resources that do not support the response, or is missing. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains how ethical considerations impact the treatment plan and communication with patients, or is missing. Examples provided do not support the decisions and responses provided, or is missing. |
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| Conclusion (1 page)
• Summarize your recommendations on the treatment options you selected for this patient. Be sure to justify your recommendations and support your response with clinically relevant and patient-specific resources, including the primary literature. |
14 (14%) - 15 (15%)
The response accurately and clearly summarizes in detail the recommendations on the treatment options selected for this patient. The response accurately and clearly explains a justification for the recommendations provided, including clinically relevant resources that fully support the recommendations provided. |
12 (12%) - 13 (13%)
The response accurately summarizes the recommendations on the treatment options selected for this patient. The response accurately explains a justification for the recommendation provided, including clinically relevant resources that support the recommendations provided. |
11 (11%) - 11 (11%)
The response inaccurately or vaguely summarizes the recommendations on the treatment options selected for this patient. The response inaccurately or vaguely explains a justification for the recommendations provided, including clinically relevant resources that inaccurately or vaguely support the recommendations provided. |
0 (0%) - 10 (10%)
The response inaccurately and vaguely summarizes the recommendations on the treatment options selected for this patient, or is missing. The response inaccurately and vaguely explains a justification for the recommendations provided, including clinically relevant resources that do not support the recommendations provided, or is missing. |
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| Written Expression and Formatting – Paragraph Development and Organization: Paragraphs make clear points that support well-developed ideas, flow logically, and demonstrate continuity of ideas. Sentences are carefully focused—neither long and rambling nor short and lacking substance. A clear and comprehensive purpose statement and introduction are provided that delineate all required criteria. |
5 (5%) - 5 (5%)
Paragraphs and sentences follow writing standards for flow, continuity, and clarity. A clear and comprehensive purpose statement, introduction, and conclusion are provided that delineate all required criteria. |
4 (4%) - 4 (4%)
Paragraphs and sentences follow writing standards for flow, continuity, and clarity 80% of the time. Purpose, introduction, and conclusion of the assignment are stated, yet they are brief and not descriptive. |
3.5 (3.5%) - 3.5 (3.5%)
Paragraphs and sentences follow writing standards for flow, continuity, and clarity 60%–79% of the time. Purpose, introduction, and conclusion of the assignment is vague or off topic. |
0 (0%) - 3 (3%)
Paragraphs and sentences follow writing standards for flow, continuity, and clarity < 60% of the time. No purpose statement, introduction, or conclusion were provided. |
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| Written Expression and Formatting – English writing standards: Correct grammar, mechanics, and proper punctuation |
5 (5%) - 5 (5%)
Uses correct grammar, spelling, and punctuation with no errors. |
4 (4%) - 4 (4%)
Contains a few (1 or 2) grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. |
3.5 (3.5%) - 3.5 (3.5%)
Contains several (3 or 4) grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. |
0 (0%) - 3 (3%)
Contains many (≥ 5) grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors that interfere with the reader’s understanding. |
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| Written Expression and Formatting – The paper follows correct APA format for title page, headings, font, spacing, margins, indentations, page numbers, parenthetical/in-text citations, and reference list. | 5 (5%) - 5 (5%)
Uses correct APA format with no errors. |
4 (4%) - 4 (4%)
Contains a few (1 or 2) APA format errors. |
3.5 (3.5%) - 3.5 (3.5%)
Contains several (3 or 4) APA format errors. |
0 (0%) - 3 (3%)
Contains many (≥ 5) APA format errors. |
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| Total Points: 100 | ||||||
Name: NURS_6630_Week4_Assignment_Rubric
A Sample Answer For the Assignment: NURS 6630 Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment
Title: NURS 6630 Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment
This week’s case discussion focuses on Major Depressive Disorder co-occurring with Alcohol Abuse. Major depressive disorder is a common type of mental illness that is currently increasing in prevalence. It is a major cause of morbidity and mortality among the population. Alcohol abuse frequently crops up for a patient to adapt to a stressful, depressing, anxious state or any other unpleasant state. Alcohol abuse is maladaptive behavior. Co-occurrence of Major Depressive Disorder and alcohol abuse poses a threat to an individual’s health and significantly increases the risk of death among these patients. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the neurobiological causes, symptomatology, drug therapy of MDD co-occurring with alcohol abuse, predictors of late-onset generalized anxiety disorder, and the classes of drugs that precipitate insomnia.
Explain the Drug Therapy of a Patient Who Presents with MDD and a history of Alcohol Abuse
The treatment of these patients ideally requires a multifaceted approach involving psychosocial treatment in conjunction with the pharmacotherapeutic approach to treatment. This kind of treatment has been deemed the most efficacious in controlling symptomatology and preventing a relapse. In the drug therapy, the Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor Sertraline at a dosage of 200mg per day and naltrexone at 100mg per day is the combination of choice. They are highly efficacious in the extinction of depression symptoms, preventing relapse, and reducing symptoms of alcohol withdrawal (McHugh, 2019). These drugs are given for fourteen weeks with regular check-ups during this period. Treatment takes as long as five years for the complete resolution of symptoms in slow responders. Acamprosate and escitalopram have also been shown to have good outcomes and can be used as an alternative.
Which Drugs Are Contraindicated? Be Specific.
Tricyclic antidepressants such as mirtazapine, bupropion, and nortriptyline are contraindicated in the setting of MDD and Alcohol abuse co-occurrence as they potentiate the sedative effect of alcohol. They affect judgment and coordination. Benzodiazepines such as Lorazepam and Diazepam are contraindicated due to their sedative effect, cognitive degradation, diminished long-term efficacy, and their cross-tolerance with alcohol.
What is the Timeframe for Resolution of Symptoms?
Symptom resolution takes place from fourteen to twenty-three days. This range is mostly possible with patients who have abstained from alcohol, are adherent to medication, and receive psychological treatment. Complete symptom resolution takes as long as five years as some patients are slow responders to therapy.
List Four Predictors of Late Generalized Anxiety Disorder
The main predictors of late-onset GAD include the presence of a chronic physical disorder like HIV/AIDS, chronic bronchitis, congenital cardiac anomalies, and Cardiac arrhythmias among others (Hellwig & Domschke, 2019). The presence of a chronic mental illness like the depressive state. Female gender. The recent loss of a close person, poverty, and the presence of a mental illness among the parents.
List Four Potential Neurobiological Causes of Psychotic Major Depression
Genetic mutations on the short arm of the serotonin transporter, Monoamine oxidase A receptor, and glucocorticoid receptor gene mutations have been highly implicated in the development of Psychotic Major Depression (Dubovsky et al., 2020). Inauspicious childhood experiences cause a disturbance in the hypothalamic-pituitary axis leading to the increased production of cortisol hormone which is usually elevated in periods of stress. Hypercortisolemia is an important trigger in the structural changes in the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. The interaction between chronic stress and genetic mutations is a major factor in psychotic depression (Croarkin, 2018). Discrepancies in the neurotransmitter dopamine in the nigrostriatal pathway are an important tenet of psychotic depression as seen in dementia and schizophrenia.
List Five Symptoms Required for an Episode of Major Depression
The criteria for diagnosis of MDD is hinged on the occurrence of all three lack of interest in things previously found interesting, anergia, and a depressed mood lasting not less than two weeks. In addition to these, the presence of any four of reduced concentration, reduced self-confidence, ideas of guilt, disturbances in sleep, reduced appetite, ideations of self-harm, and pessimism confers a diagnosis of MDD.
List three Classes of Drugs that Precipitate Insomnia with an Example from each Class
Insomnia is a common adverse effect of a myriad of drug classes. They include Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors such as paroxetine, Statins such as atorvastatin, and second-generation H1 Antagonists such as Azelastine.
Conclusion
The co-occurrence of Major Depressive Disorder with Alcohol Abuse is almost always associated with poor outcomes. This calls for a much closer look at the diagnostic confusion and prompt and timely management of these patients. The multifaceted approach to treatment and handling of these patients goes a long way to lower the probability of poor outcomes.
References
Croarkin, P. E. (2018). Indexing the neurobiology of psychotic depression with resting state connectivity: Insights from the STOP-PD study. EBioMedicine, 37, 32–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2018.10.010
Dubovsky, Steven L., Ghosh, Biswarup M., Serotte, Jordan C., & Cranwell, V. (2020). Psychotic Depression: Diagnosis, Differential Diagnosis, and Treatment. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 90(3), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1159/000511348
Hellwig, S., & Domschke, K. (2019). Anxiety in Late Life: An Update on Pathomechanisms. Gerontology, 65(5), 465–473. https://doi.org/10.1159/000500306
McHugh, R. (2019). Alcohol Use Disorder and Depressive Disorders. Alcohol Research: Current Reviews, 40(1). https://doi.org/10.35946/arcr.v40.1.01
A Sample Answer 2 For the Assignment: NURS 6630 Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment
Title: NURS 6630 Assignment 1: Short Answer Assessment
Anatomy of the Neuron
Neurons are information messengers with three main parts namely the cell body, axon, and the dendrites (Kringelbach et al., 2020). The cell body is made up of a nucleus and cytoplasm and produces protein required to construct other parts of the neuron. The axon, on the other hand, extends from the cell body and carries signals away from the cell body while the dendrites carry signals toward the cell body and have numerous synapses to receive the signal from nearby neurons. Upon stimulation, neurons transmit an electrical impulse that passes through the dendrite, to the cell body, axon, axon terminal, and finally, the stimulus is passed (Kringelbach et al., 2020). At the axonal terminal, the axon releases neurotransmitters that depolarize neighboring cells through synapses and by binding to the membrane of the dendrite.
Subcortical Structures
Other structures within the brain are subcortical structures that act as information hubs for the nervous system. Their main role is to relay and modulate information circulating in different areas of the brain. They include the basal ganglia, limbic structures, pituitary gland, and the diencephalon (Malinowski, 2019).
The limbic systems play a great role in learning and memory addiction. The systems provide the anatomical substrate for emotions and motivated behaviors, including the circulatory for reward-related events and stress responses. Specifically, the hippocampus is used to mediate a cognitive/spatial form of memory. It controls learning and declarative memory which covers the memory of facts and events (Malinowski, 2019). The dorsal striatum also helps in memory by mediating the stimulus-response habit memory. Addiction on the other hand is linked to the limbic system through the orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus (Malinowski, 2019).
In line with motor control, the nigra striatal region offers two anatomically and functionally distinct portions knowns as the substantia nigra pars compacta and the substantia nigra pars reticulata.
Glial Cells
Other essential components in the central nervous system are the glial cells. They include the astrocytes whose role is to maintain the environment for neuronal signaling by controlling the level of neurotransmitters surrounding the synapses (Hirbec et al., 2020). Equally, oligodendrocytes wrap around the axons forming a protective layer called myelin sheath which enhances neuron signaling. The cells also include microglia, ependymal cells, and radial glial whose roles are clearing dead cells or removing harmful toxins, maintaining homeostasis, and regenerating neurons and other glial cells like astrocytes and oligodendrocytes respectively.
Neuron Communication
Neurons communicate with each other through synaptic transmission. A chemical synapse is registered at the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron and the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron (Malinowski, 2019). The dendrite picks up signals and passes the signals down to the axon, into the axon terminals, and into the synapses. The role of the chemical synapse is to transform the electrical signal in the presynaptic cell’s axon into a chemical signal and back into an electrical signal in the postsynaptic cell.
Neuroplasticity
Brain plasticity denotes the ability of the brain to reorganize itself and form new neural connections in response to extrinsic or intrinsic stimuli. Through axonal sprouting, the undamaged axons develop new nerve endings and reconnect neurons with severed or injured links (Mateos-Aparicio & Rodríguez-Moreno, 2019). For instance, undamaged brain sites of stroke patients rewire themselves to take over functions of the damaged brain sites. Similarly, the undamaged axons sprout nerve endings that connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neural pathways (Mateos-Aparicio & Rodríguez-Moreno, 2019). For example, exposing the brain to specific grammatical rules helps it process and develop language.
References
Hirbec, H., Déglon, N., Foo, L. C., Goshen, I., Grutzendler, J., Hangen, E., … & Escartin, C. (2020). Emerging technologies to study glial cells. Glia, 68(9), 1692-1728. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23780
Kringelbach, M. L., Cruzat, J., Cabral, J., Knudsen, G. M., Carhart-Harris, R., Whybrow, P. C., … & Deco, G. (2020). Dynamic coupling of whole-brain neuronal and neurotransmitter systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(17), 9566-9576. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1921475117
Malinowski, M. N. (2019). Anatomy of the brain and brain stem. In Deer’s Treatment of Pain (pp. 49-59). Springer, Cham.
Mateos-Aparicio, P., & Rodríguez-Moreno, A. (2019). The impact of studying brain plasticity. Frontiers in cellular neuroscience, 13, 66. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00066